Revitalizing Rural Landscapes: Applying Cultural Landscape Gene Theory for Sustainable Spatial Planning in Linpu Village

Abstract

In the context of rapid urbanization, it is imperative to address the preservation and sustainable development of rural landscapes. This study introduces a novel framework using cultural landscape gene theory to enhance the landscape spatial pattern of Linpu Village, China. Employing a multi-method approach, including data collection and historical data analysis, GIS analysis, and field surveys, we analyze the village’s landscape features and identify a well-preserved “one core, two wings” spatial configuration with diminishing accessibility from the center to the periphery. The study uncovers significant challenges to landscape coherence and legibility, including landscape element discontinuity, inadequate maintenance, and fragmented information. To address these issues, we propose optimization strategies aimed at revitalizing weakened cultural landscape genes, repairing disrupted elements, ensuring corridor integrity, and improving spatial organization. The extraction–construction–analysis–preservation model established in this research not only delivers a comprehensive analysis of Linpu’s cultural landscape but also offers a scalable framework for preserving the ecological and cultural integrity of traditional villages. This study contributes to the practical implementation of sustainable landscape strategies, enhancing the ecological adaptability and resilience of rural environments in the face of urban encroachment.

1. Introduction

Traditional villages are vital custodians of cultural heritage, encapsulating the historical and architectural progression of societies worldwide [1]. These villages—from the ancient towns of Europe to the heritage settlements in Africa and the rural landscapes in Asia—are under increasing threat from rapid urbanization [2,3,4]. This phenomenon leads to the degradation of cultural landscapes and disrupts historical continuity, posing significant challenges to the sustainable development of traditional villages globally [5].

Historically, global preservation efforts have predominantly concentrated on tangible elements, such as architectural styles and the structural conservation of buildings [6]. However, these efforts often neglect the broader landscape structures and cultural contexts integral to the villages’ identities [7]. This oversight can result in fragmented and sometimes ineffective conservation practices. Therefore, it is crucial to adopt a holistic approach that encompasses both the physical and cultural dimensions of these landscapes.

Cultural Landscape Genes of Traditional Settlements (CLGTS) provides a robust framework for analyzing and preserving the essence of traditional village landscapes [8]. This theory, which conceptualizes ‘Cultural Landscape Genes’ as the cultural, physical, and historical narratives embedded within traditional settlements, offers a way to maintain the identity and continuity of these landscapes [9]. By treating these ‘genes’—comprising physical features like buildings and roads, cultural practices, and historical narratives—as components that define a landscape’s character and resilience, landscape gene theory enables a nuanced conservation strategy that preserves regional cultural attributes in an integrated and sustainable manner.

Despite advancements, cultural landscape gene theory faces critical research gaps. Firstly, its application in rural planning remains limited, with a significant need to integrate this theoretical framework into practical, scalable conservation strategies [10]. Secondly, the predominant qualitative nature of current analysis methods highlights a pressing need for systematic quantitative approaches [11]. Thirdly, the application of this research has predominantly been confined within China, specifically to traditional villages in provinces such as Hunan and Shaanxi [12,13], resulting in geographical concentration and limiting broader applicability.

This study addresses these gaps by employing Linpu Village in Fuzhou, in southeastern China, as a case study to develop a sustainable model for traditional village landscapes using landscape gene theory. This research has three objectives. The first is to establish an “extraction-construction-analysis-preservation” model to enhance the practical application of the theory in rural planning. The second is to enhance analytical methods using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to analyze key spatial characteristics of cultural landscape genes. These include density, integration, and accessibility, which will enhance the scientific validity and generalizability of the results of the genetic characterization of cultural landscapes. Thirdly, the research will be expanded to Southeast China to enrich the cultural landscape gene pool and verify the applicability of landscape gene theory in different cultural contexts.

Through a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods, this research details the specific cultural landscape genes of Linpu Village. It demonstrates how these genes can inform effective conservation and development strategies. This approach not only promises sustainable solutions for the preservation and enhancement of traditional villages globally, but also provides a scalable model that showcases the broader applicability of cultural landscape gene theory in cultural landscape preservation.

2. Literature Review

To further deepen the understanding of cultural landscape gene theory, this section thoroughly explores the research overview of settlement landscapes, the basic concepts of cultural landscape gene theory, its historical development, and its application in modern research. This comprehensive examination aims to better grasp the practical significance and potential application of cultural landscape gene theory in global village conservation strategies.

2.1. Overview of Research on Settlement Landscapes

The study of settlement landscapes can be traced back to the 19th century, with Johann Georg Kohl’s systematic study from a geographical perspective, which made settlement landscapes a hotspot in academic research [14]. By the 1980s, the purpose of conservation shifted from purely historical significance to heritage culture, and the study content began to diversify gradually [15]. Entering the 21st century, interdisciplinary convergence became increasingly evident, concentrating research on several major fields, including the economic promotion of settlement development [16], spatial research on settlement landscapes [17], and the sustainable development of settlements [18]. Recently, international research has focused on settlement landscape characteristics [19], the ecological construction of settlements [20], and the spatial patterns of settlements [21,22]. These studies have promoted the development of cultural diversity in settlement landscapes and provided a rich practical basis for applying cultural landscape gene theory.

2.2. Underlying Concepts

To better understand the theory of cultural landscape gene, it is necessary to clarify a few relevant foundational concepts (

Table 1. Comparison of Genes, Cultural Genes, CLGTS, and Landscape Genetics.

Comparison Item	Genes	Cultural Genes	CLGTS	Landscape Genetics
Concept Origin	Biology, Genetics	Genetic Theory, Cultural Heritage	Cultural Gene Theory, Human Geography	Landscape Ecology, Population Genetics
Definition	Hereditary unit controlling biological traits, with replication, mutation, and variation	The basic unit of cultural transmission, with replication, variation, and selection	Cultural elements in traditional settlements, with uniqueness, replication, and variation	Study of how landscape features affect gene flow, population structure, and species adaptation
Application Fields	Biology, Medicine, Agriculture, Evolutionary Studies	Social Sciences, Cultural Studies, Information Dissemination	Traditional Settlement Preservation, Rural Planning, Cultural Heritage Protection	Biodiversity Conservation, Species Management, Ecosystem Restoration
Research Methods	Laboratory Experiments, Gene Sequencing, Molecular Biology Techniques	Observation, Experiments, Theoretical Modeling, Interdisciplinary Methods	GIS, Remote Sensing, Field Surveys	GIS, Remote Sensing, Genomic Tools, Mathematical Modeling
Research Background	Understanding genetic mechanisms and biological evolution, studying genetic diseases, and breeding	Exploring mechanisms of cultural transmission and evolution, understanding cultural and information dissemination patterns	The need for cultural heritage protection in the face of rapid urbanization	The impact of landscape changes on the genetic structure and connectivity of natural populations
Main Goals	Understanding genetic mechanisms, improving breeds, treating genetic diseases	Explaining cultural phenomena and their dissemination and evolution, understanding information and cultural dissemination patterns	Extracting and protecting cultural landscape genes in traditional villages to achieve sustainable cultural heritage development and revival	Understanding and managing the impact of landscape features on gene flow and species adaptation

).

Genes: The concept of a “gene” originated in the 1960s, when Gregor Mendel proposed that hereditary factors are the key units controlling organism traits. The term “gene” officially appeared in the 1909 book Principles of Precision Genetics by Danish geneticist Wilhelm Johannsen [23].

Cultural Genes: Inspired by the hereditary properties of genes, social scientists began exploring the basic elements of cultural inheritance and their properties. In the 1950s, Alfred L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn hypothesized “cultural genes”, arguing that they are the basic units of human culture, subject to self-replication, “mutation”, and variation [24]. Richard Dawkins’s 1976 book The Selfish Gene introduced the concept of “meme”, which brought the idea of cultural genes into social science research, later leading to the theory of “memetics” [25]. Currently, the main research areas related to modality theory include linguistic and network modality research [26], providing valuable insights for the genetic study of cultural landscapes [11].

Landscape Genetics: This interdisciplinary field combines landscape ecology and population genetics to understand how landscape features affect gene flow, population structure, and species adaptation [27]. Conceptualized by Manel et al. and formalized as a research area, landscape genetics has made significant progress utilizing GIS, remote sensing, and genomics tools [28]. Despite the similarity in name, landscape genetics and cultural landscape genes focus on distinctly different areas. The former studies natural populations and their genetic connectivity influenced by landscape structure [29], while the latter explores the cultural transmission and evolution of traditional human settlements and cultural landscapes, examining culture–environment interactions in human contexts [30].

2.3. Formation and Development of Cultural Landscape Gene Theory

The concept of the cultural landscape gene is mainly inspired by cultural genes. Chinese scholar Liu Peilin combined the concept of “cultural genes” with practical research in human geography and related disciplines, proposing the concept of “cultural landscape genes”. He posits that cultural landscape genes distinguish one cultural landscape from another, akin to biological genes’ uniqueness, replicability, and variability [31]. Strictly speaking, landscape genes refer to cultural factors in traditional settlements with specific material carriers or specialized reference objects [11].

From a methodological perspective, the cultural landscape gene analyzes the spatial imagery characteristics of traditional settlement landscapes and their geographic significance, drawing on cultural gene theory. Historically, research results before 2015 were relatively few, focusing mainly on landscape gene characteristics and concentrating on Liu Peilin and his academic team [11]. Post 2015, research has spread to various institutions and individuals, expanding the thematic scope. Currently, landscape gene research spans three aspects: architectural culture [32], settlement patterns [33], and regional culture [34], primarily focusing on traditional settlements with distinctive landscapes across China, particularly in the southwest and central regions [11]. Research scales include architectural monoliths, architectural groups, villages, and settlements [12,35]. The research content is divided into three major fields: cultural landscape gene identification and classification, map construction and expression, and the practical application of landscape genes.

Cultural Landscape Gene Identification and Classification: This field extracts the most characteristic landscape genes by deconstructing landscape elements of traditional settlements. Liu Peilin pioneered four basic principles for identifying a cultural landscape gene: “intrinsic uniqueness, extrinsic uniqueness, local uniqueness, and overall dominance” [36]. He elucidated the biologically similar characteristics of traditional settlement cultural factors, significantly impacting subsequent research. Shen Xiuying et al. proposed four extraction methods—pattern, element, structure, and meaning—based on these principles [37]. However, this method has operational limitations, particularly for extracting unique landscape elements and cultural factors. Hu and colleagues later proposed a feature deconstruction–extraction method, distinguishing cultural landscape elements by category, merging similar elements, and classifying them into four categories of feature genes, optimizing extraction and classification methods [38].

Mapping Construction and Expression: Cultural landscape gene mapping involves researchers processing the identified and extracted cultural landscape gene information of traditional settlements, coding and recording it, importing it into a basic database, and visualizing it with GIS tools [30]. Cultural landscape gene mapping contains information such as spatial positioning, carrier history, and culture [33]. Currently, most research on the cultural landscape genes of traditional settlements stops at the construction stage, with fewer studies combining quantitative analysis methods to reveal spatial characteristics of landscape genes [39].

Practical Application of Cultural Landscape Genes: Application mainly focuses on traditional settlement landscape inheritance and protection and minority settlement cultural landscape gene analysis [40]. For instance, Liu Peilin remodeled the image of village cultural landscapes based on extracting and identifying cultural landscape genes, presenting each attraction as a complete thematic tour line to shape a recognizable cultural tourist place [41]. However, most studies are limited to extracting and identifying cultural landscape genes and collecting and integrating local cultural and geographic information data, without further application to traditional cultural inheritance and revitalization or proposing specific, effective paths and methods compared to past efforts [39].

To summarize, the theory of landscape genetics has moved from initial exploration to rapid development. However, several issues still need scrutiny and resolution:

Improvement of Analytical Methods: Current research mainly employs qualitative analysis through literature reviews and field research to confirm the characteristics of cultural landscape genes [11]. Further analysis of spatial characteristics is limited [10]. Introducing mathematical models and spatial analysis techniques is necessary to deeply analyze spatial distribution laws and dynamic changes, providing a scientific basis for protecting and revitalizing cultural landscape genes.

Deepening Practical Applications: Most research stops at collecting raw data on cultural landscape genes of traditional villages [42], lacking depth in processing and utilizing these data for further planning and application in sustainable village development [43]. Future research should focus on specific applications of cultural landscape genes in ecological protection, cultural tourism, and community development, proposing practical operational paths and methods to transform theoretical results into practice and achieve sustainable rural development.

Addressing Research Limitations and Geographic Imbalance: Current research primarily focuses on China, particularly traditional villages in the southwest and central regions [44,45]. This concentration limits the application and generalizability of the cultural landscape gene theory, hindering the summarization of revitalization paths for traditional villages globally. Expanding the scope to cover diverse cultural landscapes and traditional villages worldwide is crucial for building a comprehensive and universal theoretical framework for cultural landscape genes. Additionally, international cooperation should be strengthened to promote the application and development of cultural landscape gene theory on a global scale, exploring paths for protecting and revitalizing traditional villages in other countries and regions.

3. Methods

3.1. Study Region

Linpu Village, situated in Chengmen Town, Cangshan District, Fuzhou City, Fujian Province, is in the northeast corner of Nantai Island. It is bordered by the Lian River to the north and Jiuqu Mountain to the south, with a view of Gushan Mountain across the river. This geographic setup forms a scenic landscape where mountains and water intertwine seamlessly, as illustrated in Figure 1. With a dense population of approximately 7000 across its 2.9 km², the village comprises four administrative subdivisions: Lianjiang, Shishan, Fulian, and Shaoqi [46].

Historically, Linpu has been a vibrant community since the Ming Dynasty, with a notable legacy of contributing scholars to imperial courts. By the Qing Dynasty, leveraging its advantageous location for land and water transport, it evolved into a critical hub within the Minjiang River Basin for waterborne trade, agriculture, and the broader socioeconomic development of the region. This development is documented in various historical records. Linpu Village serves as a repository for diverse regional cultures, encompassing the Shangshu culture and the patriotic culture of the Southern Song Dynasty, among others. This blend aligns with the traditional village ethos prevalent in Fuzhou and highlights Linpu’s distinct cultural identity. It boasts 14 cultural heritage units and 32 listed protected buildings. Recognizing its historical and cultural significance, Linpu Village was designated as a historical and cultural village of note in Fujian Province in 2007. It was included in the seventh batch of national-level historical and cultural villages in 2019 [47]. This distinction places it among the few millennium-old villages surviving within an urban context in China.

However, recent rapid urbanization in Fuzhou has posed significant threats to Linpu’s architectural integrity and landscape. Unplanned development and insufficient regulatory oversight have led to substantial alterations in village texture and aesthetics, characterized by intrusive construction and the encroachment of new development zones. These changes urgently call for concerted efforts to preserve the traditional landscapes that embody Linpu’s historical and cultural essence.

3.2. Research Methods

Identifying and extracting cultural landscape genes involve extracting elements or factors that reflect regional cultural features from complex landscape phenomena. Due to this, any element or factor can be considered a cultural landscape gene theoretically; the identification and extraction of cultural landscape genes must follow certain principles and theoretical methods. Liu Peilin introduces four fundamental principles for extracting cultural landscape genes from his research on traditional Chinese settlement landscapes, namely “intrinsic uniqueness, extrinsic uniqueness, local uniqueness, and overall dominance” [36]. Moreover, he maintains that extracting cultural landscape genes from traditional village landscapes requires specific technical methods. The methods proposed by Hu Zui et al. [38] for extracting material and non-material cultural landscape genes based on the cultural landscape of Xuanzhou Ancient Town, as well as the methods proposed by Yin Zhiyi et al. [33] for Huangpi Dayu Bay, offer certain valuable guidance for this study. Based on the above identification principles and extraction methods, a cultural landscape gene extraction system for Linpu Village has been established to extract cultural landscape genes. After the extraction of cultural landscape genes, the principles of typology are adopted to classify and explain landscape elements, deriving corresponding cultural landscape genes. The understanding of village cultural landscape genes is further enhanced by constructing a landscape gene information chain. This spatial organizational form reflects certain cultural symbolic features of cultural landscapes [26]. For a more intuitive and accurate analysis of the spatial features of village cultural landscape genes, quantitative research methods such as spatial syntax theory and kernel density analysis were combined to fully explore the features of traditional villages and propose relevant strategies for the preservation and sustainable development of traditional village features. In line with the principles mentioned above, as well as theories and methods, the integrated research process of “extraction-construction-analysis-preservation” of cultural landscape genes was established, as shown in Figure 2.

3.2.1. Identification and Encoding Methods of Cultural Landscape Genes

• Gene Identification and Extraction Method

The cultural landscape genes of Linpu Village mainly fall into two categories based on different material forms: material cultural genes and non-material cultural genes. The methods for extracting material elements include structural extraction, form extraction, pattern extraction, and element extraction. In contrast, those non-material elements include cultural context tracing, memory reproduction, connotation interpretation, and external perception [48]. The specific means of identification of cultural landscape genes is mainly through the visual and perceptual analyses of the researchers, specifically the perceptual identification of the cultural landscape genes of the villages through a variety of ways, such as viewing, field visits, surveys, reviewing historical and cultural data, and examining the characteristics of the natural environment. Based on the principles of typology and the “Guidelines for Strengthening the Preservation of Chinese Traditional Villages” [49], the identification and extraction results of material cultural landscape genes are classified into three identification factors, including overall layout, architectural features, and environmental references, and 10 identification indicators, including village form, street layout, and architectural style, etc. In comparison, the non-material cultural landscape genes are formed based on field research and classified into three identification factors, including regional culture, custom activities and traditional crafts, and four identification indicators, which ultimately establish the identification system for cultural landscape genes in Linpu Village (

Table 2. Cultural landscape gene identification system in Linpu Village.

Gene Category	Identification Factor	Identification Sub-Indicators
Material cultural genes	Overall Layout	Landscape Pattern
		Street Layout
		Village Form
	Architectural Features	Plane Layout
		Public Building
		Architectural Style
		Architectural Decoration
		Architectural Texture
	Environmental References	Cultural Environment
		Natural Environment
Non-material cultural genes	Regional Culture	Surname Clan
		Object of Faith
	Custom Activities	Entertainment Customs
	Traditional Crafts	Inheritance Level

).

• Gene Information Chain Construction Method

This method is used to accurately categorize and elucidate the affinities among various cultural landscape genes, as well as to systematically record and manage the corresponding data. Based on the identification results of cultural landscape genes in Linpu Village, the encoding structure of cultural landscape genes is divided into region, category, and feature codes. The region code for Linpu Village is set as X. The category code, according to Richard Dawkins’s concept of “Meme” [50], is set as M to represent cultural landscape genes, while distinguishing material cultural genes as M1 and non-material cultural genes as M2, respectively. The feature code follows the “Classification and Code of Fundamental Geographic Information feature” [51], categorizing the cultural landscape gene information of Linpu Village into “primary elements, secondary elements, tertiary elements, and landscape elements” and encoding them in Arabic numerals [36] (Figure 3). Our research team, which includes experienced researchers in relevant fields, conducted the cultural landscape gene encoding for Linpu Village. Our encoding method is based on established techniques referenced in several vital studies [33,52], which have been applied by other scholars in similar contexts. To ensure the accuracy and consistency of our encoding, two team members independently conducted the encoding process. Their results were compared, and discrepancies were discussed and resolved through consensus. Senior researchers reviewed and finalized this step to ensure alignment with established standards.

3.2.2. Analysis Methods for Spatial Features of Cultural Landscape Genes

This study employs multiple analysis methods to comprehensively understand the spatial features of cultural landscape genes in Linpu Village. These methods include analyzing the spatial distribution types, density, and accessibility of cultural landscape genes. Through these methods, we can reveal the spatial organization and distribution patterns of cultural landscape genes, assess the concentration of their cultural value, and optimize their accessibility, thereby formulating scientific conservation and sustainable development strategies. These analyses also help identify areas that need prioritized protection and provide data support for improving infrastructure and enhancing the visitor experience.

• Analysis Method for Spatial Distribution Types of Genes

To evaluate the spatial organization of cultural landscape genes, this study first needs to determine their distribution types. Understanding the spatial arrangement of cultural landscape genes within the village can reveal the influence of natural and human factors on their distribution, aiding in developing targeted management and conservation strategies. Therefore, we employed the “average nearest neighbor” (ANN) method. On a macro level, the cultural landscape gene units in Linpu Village are point elements. The spatial distribution types of point elements can be categorized into three types: random, clustered, and uniform. The “average nearest neighbor” method is often used to determine the spatial distribution types of point elements [53], which is also suitable for determining the spatial distribution types of cultural landscape genes. The calculation formula for the average nearest neighbor (ANN) ratio is as follows:

$$ANN={\displaystyle \frac{\overline{D_O}}{D_E}}$$

(1)

$$D_E={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt[2]{n/A}}}$$

(2)

where $\overline{D_o}$ is the actual average distance between each cultural landscape gene unit and its nearest neighbor; $D_E$ is the expected average distance between the cultural landscape gene units, assuming a random distribution pattern; n is the number of landscape gene units; and A is the village scope, including all cultural landscape gene units. When ANN = 1, the cultural landscape genes tend to be randomly distributed; when ANN > 1, the cultural landscape genes tend to be discrete; when ANN < 1, the cultural landscape genes tend to be clustered.

• Analysis Method for Spatial Distribution Density of Genes

To identify and prioritize areas with high cultural and historical value, this study needs to understand the spatial density distribution of cultural landscape genes. High-density areas typically indicate a concentrated distribution of cultural heritage, which is crucial for formulating graded conservation strategies and optimizing resource allocation. Therefore, we employed the kernel density analysis method [54]. The kernel density analysis method is commonly used to calculate the spatial density of point elements [53], and this method is also applicable for analyzing the spatial distribution density of cultural landscape genes. When calculating kernel density, cultural landscape gene units are assigned values according to the number of cultural landscape genes represented by the cultural landscape gene unit. Where a cultural landscape gene unit represents more than one cultural landscape gene, the landscape unit is weighted with a weight determined by the ratio of the number of cultural landscape genes in the unit to the total number of genes in all units, ensuring that units with a higher number of genes have a greater impact on the overall density estimate. This weighting approach helps emphasize culturally and historically significant areas due to a higher concentration of cultural landscape genes. The formula for calculating the kernel density, taking into account the weights (W_KD), is given below: The calculation formula for kernel density, considering the weights (W_KD), is as follows:

$$W\_KD(x)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{{\sum }_{i=1}^n{W}_i}}\sum _{i=1}^n{W}_{i}K({\displaystyle \frac{x-X_i}{h}})$$

(3)

where $x$ represents a position in the spatial domain for which we estimate the density. $W_i$ defines the weight for the $i^{th}$ unit, calculated as the proportion of cultural landscape genes within that unit relative to the sum of cultural landscape genes across all units. $K$ denotes the kernel function. $X_i$ is the location of the $i^{th}$ cultural landscape gene unit. $h$ stands for the bandwidth.

A spatial distribution model of cultural landscape genes in Linpu Village is constructed using ArcGIS version 10.6 (Esri, Redlands, CA, USA). The cultural landscape genetic elements within the village are assigned values, and the kernel density analysis method is adopted to calculate the spatial model of cultural landscape genes. The results of the kernel density calculation are presented in the form of images, and the gene density levels are graded based on the distribution results of landscape units. The color depth represents the difference in kernel density values, with darker colors indicating higher kernel density values.

• Analysis Method for Spatial Accessibility of Genes

Spatial accessibility analysis aims to examine the capacity of cultural landscape genes to attract traffic flow. High accessibility areas are more likely to attract visitors, promoting the display and conservation of cultural heritage. In traditional villages, cultural landscape genes are interconnected via existing traffic paths, constituting a transportation network. Within this network, the transportation cost associated with accessing each cultural landscape gene unit varies. The concept of “topological depth” quantifies transportation costs, whereas a higher topological depth value indicates increased costs for a cultural landscape gene unit and reduced accessibility. To quantify the spatial accessibility of cultural landscape gene units, the method of calculating their global integration was adopted. Global integration is the aggregate of the reciprocals of topological depth values from a given cultural landscape gene unit to all others within its historical and cultural village town. Consequently, spaces exhibiting high integration are characterized by enhanced accessibility [29]. This analysis was conducted using Depthmap X version 0.8.0 (Space Syntax Laboratory, The Bartlett School of Architecture, University College London, UK) to assess the global integration of Linpu Village’s spatial axes. The formula to calculate the global integration of cultural landscape genes is as follows:

$$I_i={\displaystyle \frac{\left(n-2\right)D_n}{2\left(nD{\mathrm{i}}^{-1}\right)}}$$

(4)

where $M{D}_i$ is the average topological depth value of cultural landscape gene $\mathrm{i}$, and its calculation formula is:

$${MD}_i={\displaystyle \frac{T{D}_i}{n-1}}={\displaystyle \frac{{\sum }_{j-1}^n{\mathrm{d}}_{ij}}{n-1}}$$

(5)

$$Dn={\displaystyle \frac{2\left\{n\left[\mathit{log}\left(\left(n+2\right)/3\right)-1\right]+1\right\}}{\left(n-1\right)\left(n-2\right)}}$$

(6)

$n$ is the total number of cultural landscape genes in the historical and cultural village. $D_N$ is the mean distance between cultural landscape genes; ${TD}_i$ is the total depth of the $i^{th}$ cultural landscape genes, summing the steps from that gene to all others; and ${\mathrm{d}}_{ij}$ is the distance from the $i^{th}$ cultural landscape gene to the $j^{th}$ cultural landscape gene.

3.3. Data Sources

The data required for this study and their sources include:

(1)

Remote Sensing Image Data

The 2020 remote sensing images of Linpu Village, obtained from ResourceSat-1, were sourced from the Geospatial Data Cloud site [55]. These images were collected using the vectorization of geographic information, including buildings, road networks, and rivers, using ArcGIS version 10.6. This process aids in analyzing and interpreting the village’s natural environment and spatial configuration. These data provide the foundation for the subsequent identification of cultural landscape gene locations in Linpu Village and the visualization of the quantitative analysis of cultural landscape gene spatial features.

(2)

Literature Data

Various literature sources were collected, including documents such as the “Historical and Cultural City Preservation Plan of Fuzhou City” [56], “Historical and Cultural City, Town, and Village Chronicles of Fuzhou City” [57] and “Preservation Plan for Linpu Village in Chengmen Town, Cangshan District, Fuzhou City, a Historical and Cultural Village of Fujian Province” [58], to analyze the cultural features of Linpu Village. The data obtained from the literature review were organized and summarized using the literature analysis method.

(3)

Field Surveys

The field surveys comprised two main components: observational surveys and structured interviews. These were conducted to gather comprehensive data on the cultural landscape genes and the villagers’ perception of their cultural heritage.

Survey Process: Field surveys were conducted between January and February 2023 to observe the physical and cultural landscape features of Linpu Village directly. These involved on-site visits to various cultural landscape gene locations to document their current state, spatial characteristics, and accessibility. GPS devices and cameras were used to record precise locations and visual conditions.

Interviews: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 36 participants, including 27 villagers, 2 village committee members, and 7 tourists. Each interview lasted between 10 and 90 min, depending on the depth of the discussion and the availability of the interviewee. Villagers were asked about their views on the protection of traditional culture, opinions on tourism development, perceptions of changes in the village landscape, and challenges in maintaining cultural heritage. Village committee members were asked about the basic conditions of the village, the maintenance of cultural heritage, and the integration of cultural preservation with development plans. Tourists were asked about their sensory experiences, perceptions of the village’s cultural landscape, and suggestions for improving the visitor experience (

Table 3. Interviewee information and focus of interviews.

Code	Interviewee Group	Number of Participants	Description	Key Focus of Interviews
RI~R27	Villagers of Linpu Village	27	R1~R13 (ordinary villagers), R14~R19 (shop owners), R20~R23 (stallholders), R24~R25 (intangible cultural heritage bearers), R25~R27 (guesthouse receptionists)	Views on the Protection of Traditional Culture and Tourism Development of Villages
G1~G2	Village Committee Members	2	G1 (Village Party Secretary), G2 (Women’s Director)	Basic conditions of the village and maintenance of culture
VI~V7	Tourists	7	V1~V7 (Tourists)	Sensory experiences of tourists

Note: ‘R’ denotes villagers, ‘G’ for government workers, and ‘V’ for tourists.

). The interviews aimed to understand the significance of various landscape genes from the perspective of the community, capturing their views on preservation needs and future development. These insights were then used to inform the development of strategies for revitalizing the cultural landscape genes, ensuring they meet the needs and expectations of the village.

4. Results

4.1. Identification and Encoding of Cultural Landscape Genes

4.1.1. Identification and Extraction of Cultural Landscape Genes in Linpu Village

The identification results of cultural landscape genes are shown in

Table 4. Identification of cultural landscape gene in Linpu Village.

Category	Factor	Indicators	Result
Material cultural genes	Overall layout	Landscape Pattern	Surrounded by mountains and waters
		Street Layout	Grid structure
		Village Form	Clustered
	Architectural features	Plane Layout	Multiple-courtyard style
		Public Buildings	Ancestral temple
			Ancient academy
			Clan hall
		Architectural Style	Facade Form	Double-slope roof with dovetail ridge
			Gable Design	Corresponding to the five-element theory
			Roof Truss Structure	Column and tie construction
		Architectural	Decoration techniques	Wood carving, stone carving, brick carving, etc.
		Decoration
		Architectural Texture	Building materials	Rammed earth walls with gray tiles
	Architectural Features	Architectural Texture	Color	Mainly gray and brown
	Environmental references	Cultural Environment	Memorial archway
			Ancient bridge
			Cliff inscriptions
		Natural Environment	The Lian Jiang River
			Centuries-old banyan tree
Non-material cultural genes	Regional culture	Surname Clan	Shangshu culture (genealogy culture)
		Object of Faith	Hero worship
			Religious belief
	Custom activities	Entertainment Customs	Welcoming the God of Mount Tai
			Pageant of gods in Ruiji Temple
	Traditional craft	Level of Inheritance	Annan instrumental performance

. In terms of overall layout, Linpu Village exhibits a landscape pattern featuring mountains and water, a network layout of streets and alleys, and a clustered village form. In terms of architectural features, Linpu Village’s buildings are mainly traditional buildings from the Ming Dynasty, Qing Dynasty, and the Republican period, with typical features of Fuzhou residential buildings. In terms of environmental references, the cultural heritage of Linpu Village is mainly reflected in cultural relics such as memorial archways, cliff inscriptions, and ancient bridges. At the same time, the natural environment is represented by ancient trees and water systems. Regarding intangible cultural genes, these mainly include regional cultures represented by Shangshu culture, hero worship, and religious beliefs, custom activities represented by welcoming the God of Mount Tai and the pageant of gods, and traditional crafts represented by Annan instrumental performance.

4.1.2. Construction of Cultural Landscape Gene Information Chain in Linpu Village

The independent encoding results from the two team members showed a high degree of consistency. Initial comparisons revealed minor discrepancies in categorization, primarily due to subjective interpretations of certain landscape features. These discrepancies were thoroughly discussed in joint sessions, where the team members reconciled differences through consensus, ensuring a unified and accurate final encoding.

Figure 4 provides examples of the encoded cultural landscape genes, demonstrating the application of our method. These examples illustrate the robustness and applicability of our coding framework. The final encoding results reflect a comprehensive and consistent categorization of the cultural landscape genes in Linpu Village, as validated by senior researchers.

On this basis, the spatial location of cultural landscape gene elements was extracted using a geographic information system (GIS), providing parameters such as ID name, coding information, coordinate information, etc.; the cultural landscape genes and the spatial distribution characteristics of cultural landscape genes were visualized (Figure 5). It can be drawn from the construction results that there are four landscape corridors in the cultural landscape gene information chain of Linpu Village, one running north to south and three running east to west. The grid-like layout of the streets and alleys reflect the overall layout gene, the architectural feature gene and regional culture gene are mainly distributed in the northern and central–southern parts of the village, and the reference environment gene is distributed primarily in the northern and southern parts of the village.

4.2. Analysis of Intrinsic Characteristics of Cultural Landscape Genes in Linpu Village

The landscape information elements are the cultural elements of a landscape, while the landscape information points embody these elements. Landscape information elements and points serve as the fundamental elements and units for constructing a landscape information chain. In contrast, landscape information corridors represent the spatial manifestation of the landscape information chain [59], as shown in Figure 6. Through the identification and extraction of the cultural landscape genes in Linpu Village (Table 4), the main features of the information elements, information points, and information corridors in Linpu Village can be derived from the construction of the cultural landscape gene chain (Figure 4) and information graph (Figure 5).

4.2.1. Features of Cultural Landscape Gene Information Elements

The landscape information elements in Linpu Village include the Shangshu culture, the patriotic culture of the Southern Song Dynasty, clan culture, religious culture, and folk culture. These elements are deeply rooted in the local cultural perspectives, enriching a rich historical context of the village’s culture with the splendid “Shangshu Culture” of the Ming Dynasty and the patriotic culture of the Southern Song Dynasty. This amalgamation creates a complex historical context that shapes the village’s cultural landscape. However, the village faces challenges in maintaining this heritage. Traditional customs such as clan sacrifices are in decline due to the loss of genealogies and fading clan consciousness. Similarly, the art of Annan instrumental performance is at risk as the older generation of performers dwindles and the younger generation shows less interest. Additionally, there is an imbalance in how cultural diversity is displayed. While there is a significant emphasis on Shangshu and patriotic cultures, lesser-known cultural elements and regional crafts receive limited attention, risking a loss of cultural diversity.

4.2.2. Features of Cultural Landscape Gene Information Points

The landscape information points in Linpu Village include architectural structures such as Taishan Temple and Lianjiang Academy that embody the features of Shangshu culture and patriotic culture, as well as residential houses and ancestral temples that showcase folk culture and clan culture, and architectural relics representing diverse cultures. The existing buildings mainly reflect the traditional courtyard architecture of Ming Dynasty, Qing Dynasty, and Republican periods, while the new constructions have an impact on the overall style and features [60]. The natural landscapes, such as water systems and ancient trees, blend with cultural landscapes such as cliff stone inscriptions, broken bridges, and Lin Bridge, bearing historical research value.

4.2.3. Features of Cultural Landscape Gene Information Corridors

The internal corridors in Linpu Village are divided into primary and secondary corridors. The primary corridor is Linpu Avenue, which runs from south to north, serving as the basic framework of the village’s layout. It connects Yudao Street to the north and stretches from Jin Shenghou (Qianliyan) Pavilion to Shaoqi Ferry to string various nodes in the village together, such as the Shangshuli Memorial Archway and Qitian Temple along Yudao Street, ensuring a complete cultural connotation to Linpu Village. The secondary corridor is the road network that links the internal residential buildings, forming a cultural tourism belt of Linpu that connects residential buildings, the ancestral temple, and the clan temple. The main and secondary corridors intersect with ancestral temples, residential houses, and community temples, forming a “fishbone-shaped” street layout in Linpu Village [19]. Nowadays, the original green slab stone on the corridors of Linpu Village has been replaced by cement pavement. The modern-style buildings constructed on both sides of the corridors are incongruous with the entire village’s traditional style, which has affected the consistency and coherence of the landscape information chain and undermined its integrity in Linpu Village. Compared with the primary corridor, the marginal landscape information corridor that is supported by the remaining alleys, such as Houjie Street and Taibao Lane, and connects the landscape information points, such as pavilions and the clan temple, bears a lower readability of cultural landscape information and underestimated value, leaving some potential points of landscape information unexplored.

4.3. Analysis of Spatial Features of Cultural Landscape Genes in Linpu Village

4.3.1. Analysis of Spatial Distribution Types of Cultural Landscape Genes

The “nearest neighbor ratio” method in ArcGIS is adopted to analyze the spatial distribution types of cultural landscape genes in Linpu Village. The calculation results show that the nearest neighbor ratio of cultural landscape genes in Linpu Village is 1.1815, which is greater than 1, indicating that the natural geographic conditions with uniform landscape elements in the village are the main factors affecting the spatial distribution types of cultural landscape genes. Linpu Village is located in a flat coastal delta region, with regular and symmetrical residential clusters, which also contributes to the uniform spatial distribution of cultural landscape genes. However, this dispersion, lack of centralization, and clear spatial layout make it difficult for tourists to fully and systematically grasp and understand the cultural characteristics of Linpu Village.

4.3.2. Analysis of Spatial Distribution Density of Cultural Landscape Gene

After thoroughly evaluating the spatial scale of landscape patterns and the distribution of cultural landscape gene units within our study area, we selected a bandwidth of 20 km for the kernel density estimation. This bandwidth was chosen to adequately capture the broad-scale spatial patterns of cultural significance without overemphasizing local variations that might result from isolated or outlier cultural landscape gene units. It strikes a balance between providing sufficient detail to discern meaningful clusters of cultural landscape genes and ensuring a smooth density surface that reflects the overarching distribution trends. This choice is consistent with the spatial extent of our study area and the average dispersion of cultural landscape gene units, thereby allowing us to generate a density map that accurately represents the density gradients of cultural heritage significance across the landscape. The calculation results of kernel density of cultural landscape genes indicate that the density of landscape information points in Linpu Village exhibits a clustered distribution, specifically characterized by the “one core, two clusters” pattern (Figure 7). The highest kernel density is located in the northern part of Linpu Village, forming the “gateway core area” composed of Taishan Temple and Lianjiang Academy, reaching the highest level of 9. The other two clusters are located in the central “residential and ancestral temple cluster” and the southern “diverse culture cluster”, with cultural landscape gene densities ranging from levels 2 to 5. Apart from these concentrated areas, the distribution of cultural landscape genes in the surrounding village is more scattered, with densities mainly ranging from levels 1 to 3.

4.3.3. Analysis of Spatial Accessibility of Cultural Landscape Genes

The calculation results of the global integration of cultural landscape genes in Linpu Village show a gradual decrease in spatial accessibility from the center to the periphery (Figure 8). The areas with the highest global integration in Linpu Village are concentrated around Linpu Street, Jinshi Lane, Houjie Street, and their surroundings, corresponding to the highest spatial accessibility of cultural landscape genes near the “residential and ancestral temple cluster”. The northern part, represented by Taishan Temple and Lianjiang Academy, is the “gateway core area” that embodies the Shangshu culture and the patriotic culture of Linpu Village, and, with the southern “diverse culture cluster”, are the two areas with higher concentrations of cultural landscape genes in the village. Despite these features, both areas show comparatively low global integration, which limits visitor engagement with these culturally rich locations and adversely affects the overall portrayal of Linpu’s landscape attributes. This disparity poses challenges for the effective communication and study of the village’s cultural heritage.

This section may be divided by subheadings. It should provide a concise and precise description of the experimental results, their interpretation, and the experimental conclusions that can be drawn.

5. Discussion

This study systematically identified and analyzed the cultural landscape genes of Linpu Village, employing a method and coding system that have been adopted by other researchers [33,52], thus enhancing the reliability and scientific rigor of our approach. By combining an in-depth examination of the connotative characteristics of these genes with an innovative spatial attribute quantification method—including spatial distribution type, density, and accessibility—we address limitations present in previous studies that focused solely on connotative analysis [11].

Our findings reveal that Linpu Village’s cultural landscape genes are diverse and rich, displaying typical Fuzhou characteristics and unique local charm. These attributes are crucial for the village’s protection and revitalization. However, some genes risk disappearing, necessitating enhanced protection measures. Spatially, these genes exhibit a uniform group distribution with a pronounced core, and accessibility diminishes from the center to the periphery, hampering the effective dissemination and utilization of cultural information.

To facilitate the sustainable development of traditional villages, we propose integrating the connotative characteristics and spatial distribution patterns of cultural landscape genes and suggest revitalization strategies. The practical application of landscape gene theory remains in its infancy, with limited research available [39]. Existing studies primarily focus on connotative protection, with scant attention to strategies for revitalizing cultural inheritance [61]. Furthermore, there is a lack of empirical research on rural landscape planning and tourism development, necessitating deeper investigation [43].

Based on our comprehensive analysis, we propose a strategy to transform Linpu Village’s cultural landscape resources into economic vitality. This strategy integrates cultural inheritance, spatial optimization, and industrial development to revitalize these resources sustainably. It aligns with Linpu Village’s cultural distinctiveness, the well-being of the local population, and tourist expectations. The specific process is illustrated in Figure 9.

The integrated planning of connotative features and spatial distribution patterns is essential for the better protection and utilization of these resources. Using kernel density and accessibility analysis, we identified landscape nodes to ensure scientifically sound selection. Information corridors highlight Linpu Village’s cultural axis, establishing a spatial pattern for protection. The central node, due to its high accessibility and rich cultural elements, should be the primary focus of development, equipped with public spaces, infrastructure, and landscape design. The northern node, reflecting Shangshu culture and patriotism, forms a corridor with riverside genes rich in natural and cultural attributes. The southern node embodies ancestral temple culture, forming a key cultural landscape. Future developments should restore and maintain these traditional characteristics. The “three horizontal and one vertical” corridors connect Linpu Village’s cultural landscapes, providing tourists with a comprehensive traditional village experience. The preservation and enhancement of these corridors should be prioritized, as indicated in Figure 10.

Spatial optimization can be achieved through cultural landscape gene carrier migration and implantation. In regions with limited accessibility and low gene agglomeration, relocating cultural landscape gene carriers to higher concentration areas ensures better protection and resource utilization. Establishing historical and cultural corridors in accessible alley spaces and introducing new carriers can enhance traditional alley spaces and preserve the historical and cultural narrative, further strengthening the village’s identity and sense of belonging.

For the protection of cultural connotations, a cultural landscape gene resource database should be established to systematically manage and digitally monitor Linpu Village’s elements. By integrating multiple data sources, a 3D cultural landscape gene database can protect the village’s history and culture’s integrity, authenticity, and sustainability [42]. Establishing a cultural landscape gene identification system supplemented by manual diagnosis can examine the inheritable variation, clonal variation, or mutation of Linpu Village’s cultural landscape genes [13]. Different conservation methods should be adopted based on the characteristics of these elements. Inherited cultural landscape genes refer to features and structures that have remained unchanged throughout their evolution, preserving original traits or historical continuity. Important inherited elements like Taishan Temple and Lianjiang Academy should maintain their integrity and continuity, preserving their original appearance and historical information. Clonal variations, which are morphological changes adapting to social or human-induced influences, need adjustment to align with the overall landscape. For instance, variations in traditional commercial streets’ architectural forms and materials should be harmonized with surrounding landscapes. Mutated cultural landscape genes, which have transformed into completely new forms unrelated to their original state, such as modern restaurants and shops, should be replaced or refurbished to maintain Linpu Village’s traditional cultural style.

Regarding tourism and cultural industry development, Linpu Village should learn from successful rural development experiences in Japan, emphasizing the central role of villagers [62,63]. Organizing cultural lectures and vocational training can transmit traditional skills and customs. Collaborating with businesses in tourism projects can diversify villagers’ income. Leveraging Linpu Village’s unique cultural landscape genes to create high-value cultural and economic products involving artists and designers can enhance visibility and attractiveness. Collaborating with digital media professionals can also build the village’s cultural IP. Traditional tours should evolve into interactive dynamic models, creating thematic routes to enhance consistency and memorability. Regularly adding interactive platforms and cultural activities can encourage repeat visits and highlight the village’s unique features.

This study’s theoretical contributions extend beyond Linpu Village, offering significant insights into cultural landscape studies and rural development. The innovative methodological framework we developed, combining connotative and spatial analyses, can be applied to other rural contexts to assess and preserve cultural landscapes. Our approach integrates tangible and intangible heritage elements into a cohesive analytical model, enhancing the understanding of cultural landscapes’ spatial dynamics. The strategies proposed for sustainable rural development provide a replicable model for other traditional villages, emphasizing the importance of cultural sustainability alongside economic and social dimensions. By validating our theoretical models in the practical context of Linpu Village, we bridge the gap between theory and practice, encouraging further application and refinement in diverse settings. This interdisciplinary research advances theoretical discourse across cultural studies, geography, spatial analysis, and rural development, promoting a holistic understanding of cultural landscapes and encouraging future interdisciplinary collaborations.

Despite the significant contributions of this study, several limitations need to be acknowledged. Firstly, the research is confined to a single village, Linpu, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. While the methodologies and frameworks developed are theoretically applicable to other contexts, further research is needed to test and validate these approaches in diverse cultural and geographical settings. Secondly, the data collection relied heavily on qualitative methods, which, while providing deep insights, may introduce subjectivity. Future studies could benefit from incorporating more quantitative data to enhance the robustness of the findings.

Additionally, the study primarily focuses on preserving and revitalizing cultural landscape genes without fully exploring the economic impacts of the proposed strategies. Longitudinal studies assessing the economic outcomes of implementing these strategies would provide valuable insights. Furthermore, the dynamic nature of cultural landscapes, influenced by ongoing social, economic, and environmental changes, necessitates continuous monitoring and adaptive management strategies. Future research should explore the development of real-time monitoring systems and adaptive management frameworks to ensure the sustainable preservation and utilization of cultural landscapes.

Finally, the role of community engagement and participation in the preservation and revitalization process was highlighted. However, further investigation is needed to understand the most effective ways to engage local communities and stakeholders in these efforts. Understanding the social dynamics and fostering strong community involvement is crucial for the success and sustainability of cultural landscape preservation initiatives.

By addressing these limitations and exploring these future research directions, we can further enhance our understanding and application of cultural landscape theory, contributing to the sustainable development and preservation of cultural heritage worldwide.

6. Conclusions

This study systematically identified and analyzed the cultural landscape genes of Linpu Village, utilizing a method and coding system widely adopted by other researchers, thereby enhancing the reliability and scientific rigor of our approach. By integrating connotative characteristics and spatial attribute quantification, our findings reveal the diverse and rich cultural landscape genes that exhibit typical Fuzhou characteristics and unique local charm. These attributes are crucial for the village’s protection and revitalization.

Our research makes several key contributions to the field of cultural landscape studies and rural development. Firstly, the innovative methodological framework combining connotative and spatial analyses can be applied to other rural contexts, providing a comprehensive tool for cultural landscape research and planning. Secondly, the strategies proposed for transforming cultural landscape resources into economic vitality offer a replicable model for sustainable rural development, emphasizing the integration of cultural, economic, and social dimensions.

Despite these contributions, the study has several limitations. The focus on a single village, Linpu, may limit the generalizability of the findings. Future research should test and validate these approaches in diverse cultural and geographical settings. Additionally, the reliance on qualitative data introduces subjectivity, which can be mitigated by incorporating more quantitative data in future studies. Moreover, the economic impacts of the proposed strategies were not fully explored, suggesting the need for longitudinal studies to assess the long-term outcomes.

Future research should also develop real-time monitoring systems and adaptive management frameworks to address the dynamic nature of cultural landscapes. The effective engagement of local communities and stakeholders in the preservation and revitalization process remains a critical area for further investigation, as understanding social dynamics and fostering community involvement are essential for sustainable cultural landscape preservation.

In conclusion, this study advances the theoretical and practical understanding of cultural landscape genes and their role in sustainable rural development. By addressing the identified limitations and exploring the suggested future research directions, we can further enhance the application of cultural landscape theory, contributing to the preservation and development of cultural heritage worldwide.