Spatial and Temporal Distribution Characteristics and Genealogical Framework of Shaanxi’s Industrial Heritage

Abstract

A large amount of industrial heritage has been preserved owing to the wide recognition of its value as part of urban renewal and rural revitalization. Shaanxi’s industrial heritage is unique because of its rich historical resources. However, research on Shaanxi’s industrial heritage has been of point and piecemeal form rather than systematic. In this study, through the collection of historical data and study of the academic literature, we analyzed 385 industrial heritage sites in Shaanxi in time and space from 1840 to 1978 using a geographic information system (GIS) to reveal their evolution patterns. We comprehensively examined the influence of factors such as natural resources, traditional ancient industry inheritance, transportation conditions, and historical policies, and found that the distribution of industrial heritage in Shaanxi resulted from the interaction of these factors. We have constructed the first ever level categorized and quantified multilevel industrial heritage atlas of Shaanxi in the form of a Sankey diagram using GIS spatial maps, which provides a traceable historical record for each industrial heritage site. We not only reveal the spatial evolution law of industrial heritage in Shaanxi but also provide an overall view of the practice of industrial heritage protection and renewal, thus helping avoid the homogenization of future design. Our findings are also of academic and practical significance for the study and protection of industrial heritage.

1. Introduction

Industrial heritage [1], with its unique cultural connotations and historical background, has become an important part of urban and rural regeneration. In the 1950s, the concept of industrial archaeology was pioneered in the United Kingdom. By 2003, industrial heritage was officially defined, and it was recognized globally in 2006 [2]. Since then, research on industrial heritage has been increasing yearly with the increasing number of industrial heritage sites, and the spatial and temporal scope of studies continues to expand [3]. Fields of research include the industrial heritage of salvage logging [4], the appropriate conservation and reuse of sites [5,6,7,8], the excavation of identified industrial heritage sites [9], the setting of renovation goals and conservation strategies [10,11], and tourism development [12,13,14]. Research has evolved from monolithic industrial heritage to include industrial corridors [15,16] and industrial heritage clusters [17] and also physical geographic regions and even the national scale [18,19]. Interest in large-scale cross-regional industrial cultural heritage [20] continues to grow [21,22].

Since geographic information system (GIS) technology was first applied to the field of heritage conservation in 1992, its technology has become increasingly mature. It has provided new opportunities to perform holistic conservation research on industrial heritage, including the comprehensive management, condition monitoring, and digital conservation of industrial heritage [23,24]. GIS-based research should not constrain the planning and design of new developments but allow history to be perceived with a focus on future development [25,26]. As examples of the use of GIS-based research to inform conservation, Tianjin City applied a GIS platform to construct a database of industrial heritage to facilitate spatial analysis and conservation management [27,28], and the spatial and temporal patterns and influencing factors of Italy’s industrial heritage provide a scientific basis for conservation and management [29]. However, most of these studies analyzed the characteristics of the spatial distribution of industrial heritage and did not further explore the evolutionary mechanisms of its origins and flows based on the results of the analysis.

As one of the important birthplaces of Chinese civilization, Shaanxi has rich natural resources and a long history of traditional ancient industry civilization (Figure 1). It preserves not only the cultural heritage of the Zhou, Qin, Han, and Tang dynasties [30], but also the industrial heritage of the Republic of China, the Second Sino–Japanese War [31], and the post-liberation period. Particularly numerous are the so-called 156 Projects [32,33] built with the assistance of the Soviet Union after the establishment of the Sino–Soviet alliance [34] and the Third Front Construction Projects built by China to prepare for war and to reorganize its industrial layout [35]. Shaanxi thus has a large number and rich variety of distinctive industrial heritage sites from different periods [36]. Shaanxi’s industrial heritage is under investigation [37], with grading and landing work making progress [38], and the amount of research on the protection and reuse of Shaanxi’s industrial heritage is increasing yearly. However, there is a lack of research on the historical evolution and influencing factors of Shaanxi’s industrial heritage, especially the relationship between ancient traditional handicrafts and modern industrial inheritance. Overall, the genealogical framework of Shaanxi’s industrial heritage has yet to be established.

This study focused on the historical background of Shaanxi from the dimensions of time and space, and the visualization space of GIS was used to analyze the spatial distribution pattern of modern industrial heritage in Shaanxi. We analyzed factors such as geography and resources, traditional ancient industry base, transportation, history, and policies to explore their inhibiting and facilitating effects on industrial development in Shaanxi. In addition, we developed a multilevel classification and quantitative genealogical framework of industrial heritage for Shaanxi with the aim of more comprehensively and three-dimensionally displaying and analyzing Shaanxi’s industrial heritage and its formation paths, thus providing an important basis for its preservation, revitalization, and utilization.

2. Research Methodology

2.1. Data Collection

The research object of this paper is a total of 385 industrial heritage sites in Shaanxi Province. The samples of industrial enterprises and related historical information in this study are mainly from the Shaanxi Local Chronicles Database [39], Chinese Industrial Heritage Historic Records: Shaanxi Volume [37], Research Practices of Industrial Heritage Survey and Protection in Shaanxi Province [40], and academic papers related to Shaanxi’s industrial heritage written between 2004 and 2024. We obtained and organized information on the year of construction, geographic location, and type of industry of Shaanxi’s industrial heritage sites by analyzing the literature.

2.2. Research Design

First, we performed time phasing of Shaanxi’s industrial history by researching the related history and literature. We used the GIS spatial statistical analysis method, including kernel density [41,42], mean center, and standard deviational ellipse [43,44], and imbalance index analysis to examine the differences in distribution between various regions [22] and to study the spatial dispersion and agglomeration characteristics of Shaanxi’s industrial legacy sites in different stages and the trend of center shift [45,46]. The distribution of industrial heritage sites in Shaanxi was abstracted into point-like elements using GIS, and the correlation between industries and Shaanxi’s natural resources, product resources, traditional ancient industry base, transportation factors, and historical and political factors was analyzed. Finally, by overlaying various factors and creatively presenting the genealogical framework of Shaanxi’s industrial heritage in the manner of a Sankey diagram, the 385 industrial heritage sites were connected by directed arrows to the historical phases, industrial types, and the regions they are located in, and then, these arrows were extended to the nodes of the GIS map to show the flow and distribution of the data(Figure 2). Furthermore, to present a clearer framework of Shaanxi’s industrial heritage genealogy, we selected several key industrial heritage projects as case studies.

2.2.1. Geographical Concentration Index Analysis

The geographical concentration index is a crucial measure for evaluating the level of concentration within the area of investigation [47]. This approach entails assessing the ratio of industrial heritage sites within a given radius, thereby estimating the level of concentration among Shaanxi’s industrial heritage sites. The purpose of this index is to quantitatively assess the level of concentration of industrial heritage sites. It aims to provide a more precise examination of the specific variations in concentration among different regions. The formula for computation is as stated [29,48]:

$$G=100\sqrt{\sum _{i=1}^n{\left({\displaystyle \frac{X_i}{T}}\right)}^2}$$

(1)

where n denotes the number of urban areas in Shaanxi Province, $X_i$ is the number of industries in city i, and T is the total number of industries in that city.G0 is the average value of V divided by T.

2.2.2. Standard Deviation Ellipse Analysis

Directional Distribution Analysis of Industry

The directional distribution analysis method involves calculating its standard deviation ellipse, which spatially represents the main area of industrial heritage distribution. The center of the ellipse indicates the relative position of industrial heritage in two-dimensional space. The azimuth reflects the primary trend direction of its distribution, the major axis represents the degree of dispersion and the maximum diffusion direction along this trend, while the minor axis denotes the direction of minimum diffusion.

$$C=\left(\begin{array}{cc}var(x)& cov(x,y)\\ cov(y,x)& var(y)\end{array}\right)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{n}}\left(\begin{array}{cc}{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n{\tilde{x}}_i^2}& {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n}{\tilde{x}}_i{\tilde{y}}_i\\ {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n}{\tilde{x}}_i{\tilde{y}}_i& {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n{\tilde{y}}_i^2}\end{array}\right)\hspace{1em}\mathrm{where}$$

(2)

$$var(x)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^n{(x_i-\overline{x})}^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^n\underset{i}{\overset{2}{\tilde{x}}}$$

$$cov(x,y)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^n(x_i-\overline{x})(y_i-\overline{y})={\displaystyle \frac{1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^n{\tilde{x}}_i{\tilde{y}}_i$$

$$var(y)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^n{(y_i-\overline{y})}^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{n}}\sum _{i=1}^n\underset{i}{\overset{2}{\tilde{y}}}$$

where x and y are the coordinates of element i, {$\bar{x},\bar{y}$} denotes the mean center of the element, and n is the total number of elements.

The sample covariance matrix is decomposed into standard form such that the matrix can be represented by eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Thus, the standard deviation of the x and y axes is as follows:

$${\sigma }_{1,2}={\left({\displaystyle \frac{({\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n{\tilde{x}}_i^2}+{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n{\tilde{y}}_i^2})\pm \sqrt{{({\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n{\tilde{x}}_i^2}-{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n{\tilde{y}}_i^2})}^2+4{({\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n}{\tilde{x}}_i{\tilde{y}}_i)}^2}}{2n}}\right)}^{{\displaystyle \raisebox{1ex}{$1$}\!\left/ \!\raisebox{-1ex}{$2$}\right.}}$$

(3)

2.2.3. Imbalance Index Analysis

Although the nearest neighbor index method provides an indication of the general clustering or dispersion of Shaanxi’s industrial heritage sites, it may not fully depict their individual distribution patterns; the imbalance index is useful for examining the differences in distribution among various regions [49]. By considering many viewpoints, it enables an examination of the equity and logic of the distribution of industrial heritage resources across different geographical areas. This contributes to developing a more comprehensive and equitable policy framework for heritage protection and management by enabling fair resource allocation and balanced regional development. Hence, the implementation of the imbalance index aids in quantifying the spatial disparity in the distribution of industrial heritage sites across Shaanxi [29,50]. The equation for calculation is

$$S={\displaystyle \frac{{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n}{Y}_i-50(n+1)}{100n-50(n+1)}}$$

(4)

where $Y_i$ represents the cumulative proportion of Shaanxi’s industrial quantity from large to small i and n represents the number of urban districts in Shaanxi.

2.2.4. Kernel Density Analysis

Kernel density analysis is employed to compute the density of industrial heritage features surrounding each output raster pixel. The computation involves measuring the density of each sample point relative to a central point within a specified distance range: proximity to the center increases density, which diminishes with distance, culminating in the aggregation of densities at identical spatial positions to produce an overall density distribution map. Kernel density analysis facilitates the identification and visualization of central points and surrounding areas that significantly influence density [51,52,53].

The following formula defines how to calculate the kernel density of a point and how to determine the default search radius in the kernel density formula.

Predicting Point Density

The predicted density at a new (x,y) location is determined by the following formula:

$$\begin{array}{c}Density={\displaystyle \frac{1}{{(radius)}^2}}{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{3}{\pi }}\cdot po{p}_i{\left(1-{\left({\displaystyle \frac{dis{t}_i}{radius}}\right)}^2\right)}^2\right] \\ For\hspace{1em}dis{t}_i<radius\end{array}$$

(5)

where the variables are as follows:

i = 1,…, n represents the input points. Only points within the radius distance of the (x, y) location are included in the summation.

${pop}_i$ is the population field value of point i, which we default to 1.

${dist}_i$ is the distance between point i and the (x, y) location.

Default Search Radius (Bandwidth)

The algorithm for determining the default search radius (also known as bandwidth) will proceed as follows:

• Calculate the mean center of the input points. If a Population field is provided, this field and all subsequent calculations will be weighted by the values in this field.
• Compute the distance of all points to the (weighted) mean center.
• Calculate the (weighted) median of these distances, $D_m$.
• Calculate the (weighted) standard distance, SD. For more information on this, see the standard distance spatial statistics tool.
• Use the following formula to calculate the bandwidth.

$$SearchRadius=0.9\ast \min \left(SD,\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\ln (2)}}}\ast D_m\right)\ast n^{-0.2}$$

(6)

where the variables are as follows:

$D_m$ is the (weighted) median distance to the (weighted) mean center.

n is the number of points if the population field is not used; if a population field is provided, n is the sum of the population field values.

SD is the standard distance.

Please note that the min. part of the equation indicates that the smaller value of the two options (SD or $\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathit{ln}\left(2\right)}}}·D_m$) will be used.

Unweighted Distance

$$SD=\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n{\left(x_i-\overline{X}\right)}^2}}{n}}+{\displaystyle \frac{{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n{\left(y_i-\overline{Y}\right)}^2}}{n}}+{\displaystyle \frac{{\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^n{\left(z_i-\overline{Z}\right)}^2}}{n}}}$$

(7)

where the variables are as follows:

$x_i$, $y_i,$ and $z_i$ are the coordinates of feature i.

$\left\{\overline{x,}\overline{y},\overline{z}\right\}$represents the mean center of the features.

n equals the total number of features.

2.2.5. Mean Center Analysis of Industrial Distribution

The mean center analysis of industrial distribution is utilized to identify the geographic center of industrial heritage across different periods. By calculating the average X and Y coordinates of all industrial heritage within the study area, changes in the distribution of industrial heritage are tracked.

3. Analysis

3.1. Analysis of the Spatio-Temporal Distribution

3.1.1. Historical Staging

With the progress of social productivity, industry gradually replaced traditional ancient industry as the dominant driver of the economy of Shaanxi Province. In this paper, we consider the following four time stages when external forces impacted the province.

• After the Opium War: The introduction of industrial machinery in China led to changes in the development of traditional ancient industry nationwide [54]. Although Shaanxi was a relatively backward area at that time, it was influenced by its introduction.
• The Second Sino–Japanese War: factories from across the country were relocated inward to Shaanxi [55], laying the groundwork for industrialization in the region.
• After the founding of the People’s Republic of China: with the assistance of the Soviet Union, Shaanxi established a new industrial system [56].
• The Third Frontier Construction Project: another inward relocation of factories across China further strengthened Shaanxi’s industry [57].

As summarized in

Table 1. Industrial stages of Shaanxi.

Stage of Shaanxi’s Industrial History	Time Stage	Key Events
Nascent modern industry	1840–1936	1840: Opium War, 1934: Longhai Railway constructed in Shaanxi Province
National industrial development	1937–1949	1937: Battle of Songhu 1949: Founding of People’s Republic of China
Other countries’ Assistance to Republic’s industry	1950–1963	1953: First Five-Year Plan (Soviet-aided construction)
Modern period of industrial self-reliance	1964–1978	1964: Third Front Construction Projects

, in this paper, we focused on industrial development from 1840 to 1978, which we divided into the following four stages.

3.1.2. Characteristics of the Spatial Distribution

We used ArcGIS visualization to analyze the distribution of 385 industrial heritage sites in Shaanxi Province in the above four periods. The analysis revealed that the distribution of industrial heritage sites is uneven among the cities of Shaanxi Province, with sites mainly concentrated in Central Shaanxi and fewer sites in the periphery of the province. The following evolutionary process can be clearly observed over time.

• 1840–1936: As a result of the Westernization movement, new technologies were introduced to Shaanxi, and industry appeared mainly in Xi’an, with the main industries being textiles, machinery, and food processing. Their scale was generally small, and the output of products was limited except for munitions. These new industrial enterprises, which were sporadically distributed in Xi’an, were the beginning of many industries in Shaanxi Province (Figure 3a).
• 1937–1949: During the Second Sino–Japanese War and the War of Liberation, the Longhai Railway was completed and opened to traffic, industrial enterprises relocated inward to Baoji, and agglomerations of industry were developed in Xi’an, Baoji, and Yan’an to meet the wartime needs of the Communist Party. The Industrial Co-operative Movement [58,59] also played a crucial role in this process. The main industries were machinery, paper and printing, and textiles. Because Central Shaanxi was an important cotton-producing area, the textile industry was mainly located in Xi’an and Xianyang, forming the Textile City Industrial Zone in Xi’an, and a textile industry based on cotton spinning developed. After the outbreak of the Second Sino–Japanese War in 1937, factories producing armaments rapidly became established in Baoji and Yan’an (Figure 3b). Most of these factories belong to the mechanical industry.
• 1950–1963: As a key province in the First Five-Year Plan, Shaanxi established a new industrial system with the financial assistance of the Soviet Union. The coal mining industry developed, which was mainly concentrated in Tongchuan and Weinan, with the mined coal transported by the Xian–Tong branch line of the Longhai Railway. These industries provided important support for Shaanxi’s energy supply and other industrial development. Factories producing machinery and building materials also began to develop in Weinan. Electronics and aviation industries emerged in Baoji, and machinery, textile, and power electronics industries rapidly developed at Xi’an. In addition, food processing, water conservation, and power industries became established at Hanzhong. The machinery and electronics industries, which account for about one-third of the industrial heritage sites of Shaanxi Province, were concentrated in Xianyang, Baoji, and Xi’an, resulting in the formation of an industrial zone with a high concentration of electronics factories (Figure 3c).
• 1964–1978: During the Cold War, Sino–Soviet relations deteriorated. In response to the military needs of national defense, China implemented regional industrialization, known as China’s Third Front Construction, on a much greater scale than the inward relocation of coastal industries by the National Government during the Second Sino–Japanese War. Under the policy of “leaning against the mountains, hiding and dispersing,” Shaanxi increased the number of industrial enterprises by 146, of which only 12 were located in Xi’an. These enterprises mainly produced military equipment and textiles. Xi’an, Xianyang, Baoji, and Hanzhong experienced further centralized industrial growth, with numerous military enterprises becoming established in Hanzhong. The number of heritage sites dating to this period is high and the sites are scattered, forming industrial clusters centered on Xi’an and Baoji, while Ankang, Hanzhong, and Yan’an each formed new industrial regions with distinctive industries (Figure 3d).

3.1.3. Movement of Mean Center of Shaanxi’s Industry

We obtained the geographical distribution characteristics of Shaanxi’s industry by calculating the mean center and standard deviation ellipse of new factories in each stage. We found that the mean center of industry in Shaanxi moved slightly westward, then northward, and then southeastward (Figure 4;

Table 2. Average central coordinates of Shaanxi’s industrial heritage across different periods.

Time Stage	XCoord	YCoord
1840–1936	108.7652318	34.46218311
1937–1949	108.7330022	35.11260673
1950–1963	108.6043804	34.40459147
1964–1978	108.6344178	34.41052844

). During the four stages, the mean center of industry moved as follows.

• 1840–1936: the main industries that were established as part of the Westernization movement were concentrated around Xi’an, with the center located near Xi’an.
• 1937–1949: the mean center shifted slightly westward as industries became established along the newly opened Longhai Railway, forming clusters in Baoji.
• 1950–1963: As a result of the development in the previous period, Xi’an, Baoji, and Xianyang became increasingly attractive locations for industry, and these cities rapidly industrialized during this period, and many heavy-industry enterprises were established with the assistance of Soviet experts. Industries also gradually developed in Weinan, Yulin, Ankang, and Hanzhong, expanding the geographical distribution of Shaanxi’s industries and shifting the mean center northward.
• 1964–1978: Against the backdrop of the Cold War, China’s industry adopted a self-reliance model. In preparation for potential conflicts, the Three Lines Construction Project implemented a policy of concealment and dispersion by leveraging the mountainous terrain of the region. The mean center of Shaanxi’s industry shifted southward again.
• We obtained the map depicting the direction of movement of Shaanxi ’s modern industries in Figure 4 by superimposing the standard deviation ellipses from the four periods. This map reveals the directional characteristics of the distribution of modern industry in each period: namely, the shifts during the first two periods were not significant, whereas the Soviet aid and the implementation of the Three Lines Construction significantly altered the central location of Shaanxi’s industries.

3.2. Analysis of Influencing Factors

3.2.1. Underlying Influences: Geography, Resources, Products

Shaanxi Province has a complex and varied topography, with the high-altitude Loess Plateau in the north, the low-altitude Central Shaanxi Plain in the middle, and the Qinling Mountains and the Han River Basin in the south. Industrial heritage sites in Shaanxi are mainly located in the plains, plateaus, and other flat areas conducive to transportation, infrastructure construction, and resource development, with sporadic developments in the mountainous areas (Figure 5a).

The distribution and development of industry in Shaanxi Province have been influenced by local natural resources and agricultural characteristics [60]. The major resources in northern Shaanxi include oil, natural gas, coal, and salt, which provide the raw materials and power for the local petrochemical and energy industries and light industries (Figure 5b).

Central Shaanxi is one of the birthplaces of Chinese agriculture, with the widespread cultivation of crops such as wheat, corn, and oilseeds (Figure 5c). Mineral resources such as iron, lead, zinc, and copper are also abundant. Mulberry farming is also a major industry in the region. These resources and characteristics provide strong support for the development of local industries such as the processing of agricultural products, textiles, and metallurgy.

Southern Shaanxi’s main metallic minerals include molybdenum, gold, pyrite, associated sulfur, associated copper, lead, niobium, and rhenium. These mineral resources have facilitated the development of metallurgy and other industries in the region [61]. This area is also rich in botanical resources, with the world-famous Ziyang tea from Ankang and Jingyang Por tea from Xianyang. The Qinling Mountains and Guanshan Mountains are also the origin of valuable Chinese herbs.

In summary, the distribution and development of industry in Shaanxi Province is closely linked to its geographical features, natural resources, and agricultural characteristics. The above analysis helps to understand the spatial distribution of industrial heritage in Shaanxi and lays the foundation for the construction of the genealogical framework of industrial heritage in Shaanxi.

3.2.2. Changes in Traditional Ancient Industry Heritage

With the increasing penetration and expansion of machine production, Chinese traditional ancient industries underwent profound changes. Some industries declined due to the emergence of new industrial products, some continued to develop due to the inheritance of special handicraft skills, and others underwent modern industrialization. In this study, we compared Shaanxi traditional ancient industries with modern industries [62,63], categorizing them into three tiers and 14 categories, as listed in

Table 3. Shaanxi traditional ancient industry inheritance sites.

Type of Traditional Ancient Industry	Area	Number of Record Times	Number of Existing Sites
Mining	Tongchuan	6	16
	Weinan	5	3
	Yan’an	1	1
	Ankang	1	1
Petroleum	Yan’an	1	1
Textiles	Yulin	2	2
	Ankang	1	2
	Baoji	1	1
	Xianyang	7	1
	Xi’an	2	0
Ceramics	Xianyang	1	1
	Tongchuan	1	2
	Yan’an	1	1
	Hanzhong	1	1
	Shangluo	1	0
	Weinan	1	0
	Xi’an	3	0
Brewing	Baoji	1	3
	Shangluo	1	1
	Yan’an	1	1
	Hanzhong	3	5
	Xi’an	1	0
Salt mining	Yulin	1	1
Tea	Ankang	1	1
	Xianyang	1	0
Pharmaceutical	Hanzhong	1	1
	Xianyang	1	0
Paper industry	Shangluo	1	1
	Ankang	1	1
	Weinan	1	0
	Baoji	1	0
	Hanzhong	1	0
	Xi’an	1	0
Smelting	Weinan	5	1
	Shangluo	1	1
	Yulin	1	0
	Xi’an	2	0
Building materials	Xianyang	2	1
	Baoji	1	0
	Xi’an	1	0
Chemical	Xianyang	1	0
	Weinan	1	0
Leather	Weinan	1	0
	Yulin	1	0
Machinery	Weinan	1	0

.

The table underscores the close relationship between the development of traditional ancient industries and resource availability. Notably, mining in Tongchuan, salt mining in Yulin, and petroleum-related activities in Yan’an were strategically situated near resource-rich areas. In contrast, the textile and printing sectors have gradually yielded to the impact of modern industries. A limited number of traditional ancient industries, including tea-making, brewing, and ceramics, persist. Analyzing the distribution of traditional ancient industry sites (Figure 6) and the index data (

Table 4. Index analysis of traditional ancient industry heritage sites in Shaanxi.

Area	Geographical Concentration Index			Imbalance Index		Type of Industry
	Other Industry	G0	Handicraft-Related Industry	Other Industry	Handicraft-Related Industry	Other Industry	Handicraft-Related Industry
Ankang	39.46	31.62	61.24	0.46	0.83	17	4
Baoji	48.86	28.87	61.24	0.73	0.86	48	4
Hanzhong	40.42	30.15	46.77	0.52	0.63	31	8
Shangluo	52.07	37.80	70.71	0.60	0.83	15	2
Tongchuan	68.47	50.00	64.81	0.67	0.53	8	10
Weinan	42.32	30.15	37.80	0.56	0.40	21	7
Xi’an	43.41	27.74	-	0.66	-	107	-
Xianyang	38.72	26.73	-	0.57	-	57	-
Yan’an	57.43	27.74	57.74	0.76	0.83	24	3
Yulin	41.57	28.87	100.00	0.51	1.00	18	1
Whole province	40.75	31.62	41.27	0.44	0.52	346	39

) for Shaanxi province, we find that Ankang exhibits a moderate geographical concentration index (GCI) of 39.46, reflecting a concentration of traditional ancient industry-related sites. Conversely, Xi’an, significantly influenced by modernization, lacks any listed traditional ancient industry heritage sites, resulting in a GCI of 0. Handicraft-related industries show a pronounced concentration in Ankang (imbalance index of 61.24) and Yan’an (imbalance index of 57.43). In contrast, the imbalance index of 0 for Xi’an, due to the absence of traditional paleo-industrial sites, is attributed to the impact of more modern industries. Overall, the density of traditional ancient industry heritage sites is higher in relatively remote regions. These findings highlight the dynamic interplay between traditional and modern industries.

3.2.3. Transportation Factors

Railroad traffic is a key factor that has influenced the industrial development of Shaanxi Province. The Longhai Railway provided convenient transportation, encouraging businesses to invest and establish enterprises in Shaanxi, leading to the rapid development of modern industries between 1935 and 1945. During the Second Sino–Japanese War, which started in 1937, the industries in coastal areas were either destroyed or seized by enemy forces, making Shaanxi an important hub for the production and transportation of goods.

Among the 385 industrial heritage sites in Shaanxi, 248 sites (64%) are located within 5 km of the railroad, whereas only 89 sites (23%) are more than 30 km from the railroad. These figures demonstrate that the proximity of industrial heritage sites to the railroad correlates with higher density, showing a positive correlation between the distribution of industrial heritage and the construction of the railroad.

After the commencement of the construction of the Longhai Railway, the industrial development in Shaanxi shifted from its earlier original state of development. Large-scale factories, which require extensive floor space and the transportation of raw materials, were highly dependent on railroad traffic and urban open spaces, resulting in a relatively concentrated industrial area (Figure 7). In contrast, small-scale machine factories and handicraft workshops, often established on the basis of individual investment decisions, were distributed on city streets, exhibiting a scattered and haphazard distribution.

3.2.4. Historical and Policy Factors

Historical and policy factors have strongly influenced the process of industrialization in Shaanxi. Figure 8 is a chart depicting the establishment of factories for different types of industries in Shaanxi Province between 1840 and 1978. These changes in the number of factories for specific types of industries in the chart reflect the industrial development of the province in each period and the relative importance of different types of industries. The vertical axis of the chart indicates the year and is labeled with important historical events and periods. The horizontal axis indicates the number of new factories built in that year. The different colors represent different types of industries, including textiles, machinery, chemicals, metallurgy, electric power, coal, petroleum, and construction.

After the Opium War in 1840, the old-style traditional ancient industry was still dominant, and there were scattered mechanical industries. In 1868, as part of the Westernization movement, advanced Western science and technology was introduced with the goal of “self-improvement,” and Zuo Zongtang set up the Xi’an Bureau of Machines in the following year. In 1911, the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the rule of the Qing Dynasty, which led to the rise of national capitalism. In 1934, the Longhai Railway to Xi’an was opened, which provided an important opportunity for industrial development, and in 1937, and when the Second Sino–Japanese War started, enterprises were relocated to Baoji and Xianyang along the railway. A large amount of modern equipment and new technologies were imported to the region, allowing Shaanxi’s industry to prosper until the end of World War II. In the same year, the Shaanxi–Gansu–Ningxia Border Region Government was established to rebuild factories to meet the needs of the military and local people. China’s liberation war started in 1945, which led to the decline of Shaanxi’s industry. The People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949, and after three years of industrial restoration, industrial development in Shaanxi was accelerated with the launch of the First Five-Year Plan in 1953. This plan involved a total of 156 construction projects nationwide, 26 of which were in Shaanxi, making it the region of China with the second largest number. Shaanxi became a leading center of many industries, including machinery, aviation, and electronics. Basic industries such as petrochemicals, electric power, coal, and building materials were also developed. Centering on Xi’an and Xianyang, a complete industrial chain was formed from textiles to printing and dyeing. The construction of the Weibei coal field markedly increased Shaanxi’s low energy production capacity. Although the Great Leap Forward in 1958 led to a serious crisis in Shaanxi’s industry, it recovered after 1964, when, due to the Cold War between China and the Soviet Union, Shaanxi became one of the key provinces for the construction of the “Three Lines Construction significantly” under the policy of “relying on mountains, dispersed, and concealed.” This development changed the focus of Shaanxi’s production to machinery, science, and technology, contributing to national defense.

4. Result

4.1. Genealogical Framework of Shaanxi’s Industrial Heritage

We extracted 385 industrial heritage sites in Shaanxi, analyzed their GIS spatial data, combined the data with relevant influencing factors, arranged them in an orderly manner, and categorized with them multilevel attributes. As a result, we creatively constructed the genealogical framework of Shaanxi’s industrial heritage by combining Sankey diagrams with maps. The genealogical framework in Figure 9 presents, from left to right, the historical phases, the types of industry, the regions where they are located, and their spatial distribution.

The historical staging reflects the development of Shaanxi’s industry between 1840 and 1978. During this period, Shaanxi’s industry underwent four major changes, caused by the intervention of external forces. Initially, without influence from external forces, but then it underwent major changes, influenced by wars, movements, policies, and national programs. In the first stage, machines were introduced into Shaanxi during the Westernization movement, marking the start of industrial development in Shaanxi and the first period of intervention by external forces. There are 29 industrial heritage sites dating from this period, accounting for 7.5% of the total. In the second stage of Shaanxi’s industry, the opening of the Longhai Railway to Xi’an and the outbreak of the Second Sino–Japanese War facilitated the inward migration of national industries to Xianyang and Baoji in Shaanxi. Fifty-two industrial heritage sites, representing 13.5% of the total, originate from this period. In the third stage, after the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the restoration of national productivity and the assistance of the Soviet Union and other countries resulted in a new industrial system in Shaanxi. There are 146 industrial heritage sites from this period, accounting for 38% of the total. In the fourth stage, during the period of self-reliance, the demand for more military equipment in preparation for war, along with the principal policy of “leaning against the mountains, hiding and dispersing,” made Shaanxi’s industrial system more comprehensive. Eventually, Shaanxi formed a complete industrial system with a full range of categories, scale, and strength. There are 158 (41%) industrial heritage sites from this stage.

In this study, the types of industry are classified with reference to the classification of China’s modern industrial heritage in a genealogical traceability study [64], in combination with the actual state of Shaanxi’s industry. This classification is divided into 4 major tiers and 16 categories (Figure 9). Among these industries, the machinery industry, the textile industry, and the electric power and water conservation industry were the three main industries in Shaanxi before 1978, accounting for 23.3%, 11.4%, and 11.4% of sites, respectively. The coal and petroleum industry, chemical industry, metal smelting industry, electronics industry, food industry, paper and printing industry, building materials industry, and aviation industry constituted other major industries, each accounting for between 3.6% and 7.5% of sites. In particular, the electronics industry and the aviation industry were regarded as new industries at that time. The pharmaceutical industry, tobacco industry, ceramics industry, movie industry, and other light industries accounted for a relatively low share of 0.2–2% of sites each. Among all these categories, 51 (22.1%) industrial heritage sites are related to traditional ancient industry.

Shaanxi is divided into three regions, Central Shaanxi, Northern Shaanxi, and Southern Shaanxi, which include 10 cities in total. Xi’an has 14 industrial categories, the largest number in the province, and 27.8% of the province’s industrial heritage sites. Xianyang and Baoji have 14.8% and 13.5% of the industrial heritage projects, respectively. In contrast, Tongchuan, Shangluo, and Yulin have relatively few industrial heritage sites, accounting for between 4.4% and 4.9% of the total. This difference is mainly due to Xi’an, Xianyang, and Baoji having more convenient transportation and greater policy support, whereas Tongchuan and Yulin’s industries are more dependent on natural resources. The clusters of industry in Shaanxi’s industrial distribution can be visualized through the color markings of the industry classifications. Xi’an and Xianyang constitute a textile-centered industrial base with a complete production chain from textiles to printing and dyeing. On the other hand, Baoji is dominated by machinery manufacturing, although a food processing industry has also developed. The northern Weiwei region is a large-scale coal production base, whereas Tongchuan’s industries include nonferrous metal smelting and chemicals. Owing to its abundant coal and oil resources, Northern Shaanxi has developed an energy and chemical industry, whereas Hanzhong’s industries include the processing of agricultural products and the manufacture of machinery.

4.2. Industrial Heritage Projects in Genealogical Framework

To present a clearer framework of Shaanxi’s industrial heritage genealogy, we selected eight industrial heritage projects, two from each of the four periods, as case studies, indicated as circled numbers in Figure 9 and in the following:

• First period (1840–1936): Yanchang Petroleum ① was located in Yan’an. Although oil had been discovered as early as the Han Dynasty, it was not until 1905, after the Qing government approved the founding of the company, that the company drilled China’s first oil well on land and became the earliest petroleum producer in China, benefiting from the advantages of its natural resources. Xian Water Supply Company ② represents the gradual development of urban infrastructure.
• Second period (1937–1949): In this period, Baoji Shenxin Cotton Mill ③ represents the rapid mechanization of the textile industry, causing the decline of the traditional textile industry, and is a model for the inward relocation of national industries. Fengzu Matches Factory ④ is chosen as a company that guaranteed the supply of products to meet domestic demand during the war.
• Third period (1950–1963): Qinchuan Machinery Factory ⑤ represents the Soviet Union’s assistance with construction during the First Five-Year Plan, and ⑥ Xifeng Wine Farm represents the development of a traditional industry through the introduction of new science and technology.
• Fourth period (1964–1978): Hanchuan Machine Tool Factory ⑦ represents the self-reliance of China’s industry during the Third Front Construction based on the principle of preparation for war, and Bashan Pharmaceutical Factory ⑧ represents a company that relied on natural resources while incorporating new science and technology.

From all nodes in the graph, it is possible to trace the development history, geographic location, category, and industrial cluster profile of a particular industrial heritage. By constructing this genealogical framework, we can analyze the multifaceted nature of industry in Shaanxi Province more intuitively and clearly.

5. Discussion

With the increasing number and variety of industrial heritage sites over time, a comprehensive understanding of industrial heritage in a region is crucial for the urgent tasks of their conservation and revitalization. The construction of a genealogical framework is helpful for understanding the complexity and diversity in the formation of regional industrial heritage, revealing how it has developed from a specific time and space. Currently, there are few academic studies on industrial heritage genealogy. The genealogical framework proposed in this study differs from the pattern pedigree framework for industrial heritage conservation and reuse proposed by Liu [65]. Liu constructs a pattern pedigree of industrial heritage conservation and reuse in the dimension of “scale hierarchy.” For example, “industrial museum cluster model,” “urban industrial heritage corridor model,” “regional industrial landscape park model,” and “industrial heritage route model.” The industrial heritage route model is distinct from the industrial heritage categorization framework [64], which traces its origins to the classification of the industrial systems of modern China and establishes a genealogy for the identity of industrial heritage from the perspective of refined classification.

In this paper, we examine the distribution characteristics of industrial heritage sites in Shaanxi from the dimensions of time and space. By analyzing factors such as geography and resources, traditional ancient industry base, transportation, history, and policies, we explore the inhibiting and promoting effects of these factors on industrial development in Shaanxi. The study of the spatial and temporal distribution characteristics and influencing factors of industrial heritage is an important basis for conservation and adaptive utilization [37]. On this basis, we have established a multilevel classification and quantification of the genealogical framework of industrial heritage in Shaanxi to more comprehensively and three-dimensionally display and analyze Shaanxi’s industrial heritage and its formation path.

Initially, we simply assumed that various factors contributed to Shaanxi’s industrial development. However, a more in-depth analysis revealed a more complex inter-relationship between these factors. For example, natural and material resources are the cornerstone of industrial development, and their abundance and distribution directly affect industrial layout and scale. These resources generate not only inter-regional cooperation but also regional industrial competition, leading to accelerated industrial expansion or contraction. There has been strong competition between traditional ancient industry and modern industry, and the decline of traditional ancient industry as a result of modern industry has led to a greater concentration of traditional ancient industry in relatively remote areas. Railroad transportation is crucial to the circulation of goods and industrial efficiency, resulting in the development of industry along the railroads, which has, in turn, influenced the layout of branch railroads. Historical policies directly positively and negatively influenced the direction and extent of industrial development in Shaanxi. These different factors did not exist in isolation but together shaped the historical trajectory of Shaanxi’s industry through mutual influence, constraints, and promotion.

Shaanxi’s industrial heritage is characterized by diversity, multiple sources, and a wide distribution, adding complexity to the framework of its genealogy. In the process of establishing the framework, the development and evolution path of Shaanxi’s industrial heritage cannot be depicted from only a single perspective. Therefore, we used a Sankey flow diagram to present Shaanxi’s industrial heritage genealogical framework, which displays the flow and distribution of data by connecting the historical phases, industrial types, and regions through directional arrows and extending the nodes connected to the GIS map. Unlike the traditional Sankey diagram, in this genealogical framework, the flow direction of the arrows is reversible, and it is also possible to trace back the type of industry and the period in which it is located through the corresponding points of the industrial heritage in the GIS map.

This study includes some limitations. For example, there is still some missing data that cannot be fully summarized and integrated. Only through continuous exploration and research can we gradually improve the genealogical framework of Shaanxi’s industrial heritage. For example, in-depth data collection and the analysis of the architectural styles, design trends, and design logic of industrial heritage will be an important research direction in future work.

6. Conclusions

We conducted an investigation of 385 industrial heritage sites in Shaanxi, covering the period from 1840 to 1978. This study explores the spatial and temporal distribution characteristics of these sites, analyzes the factors that influenced the formation of industrial patterns in Shaanxi, and examines their evolution. Additionally, we quantified Shaanxi’s industrial heritage genealogy using a multilevel classification and represented it innovatively through the Sankey diagram format. The following are the main findings of our study.

From a temporal viewpoint, industrial heritage in Shaanxi exhibited a gathering-then-dispersing pattern. The mean center initially shifted westward, followed by a significant northward shift after 1949. Later, due to the Third Line Project, it moved southeast, returning close to its original location.

From a spatial perspective, Shaanxi’s industrial heritage is closely tied to its railroads. Different types of industrial clusters have emerged in various cities based on the distribution of resources. For instance, Xi’an and Xianyang serve as centers for the textile industry, while Baoji specializes in machinery manufacturing. Weibei is a significant coal production hub, and Tongchuan’s industries include nonferrous metal smelting and chemicals. In Northern Shaanxi, abundant coal and oil resources have led to the development of energy and chemical industries. Hanzhong focuses on agricultural product processing and machinery manufacturing.

Natural resources play a crucial role in shaping the industrial layout and serve as the foundation for the formation of an industrial structure [66]. In Shaanxi, the development of traditional ancient industries had both inhibiting and promoting effects on industrial evolution. Industries closely tied to resources—such as mining, salt mining, and petroleum—experienced rapid growth. Meanwhile, modern industries replaced traditional ones like textiles and printing. However, certain ancient practices, including tea-making, brewing, and ceramics, persisted in Shaanxi. Historical context and policy decisions significantly influenced the rise and decline of Shaanxi’s industries, ultimately positioning it as a leading region in China’s mechanical, aerospace, and electronics sectors.

Furthermore, this study provides an overall research perspective and a foundational framework for the protection and utilization of industrial heritage in Shaanxi, while also serving as a reference for industrial heritage research in other regions. As China increasingly recognizes the value of industrial heritage, the list of protected sites continues to expand [67,68]. However, there remains a significant imbalance in their spatial and categorical distribution [69,70,71,72,73]. In terms of preservation and renovation, many projects are becoming homogenized, failing to trace and fully reflect the uniqueness of each industrial heritage site [74,75]. Therefore, the following recommendation is proposed for consideration:

It is suggested that policymakers and researchers distinguish between the origins and categorical differences of industrial heritage when formulating and implementing protection policies. This approach will make protection and research efforts more systematic and scientific. By clarifying the unique value and protection needs of different types of industrial heritage, more targeted protection measures can be developed, ensuring that all types of industrial heritage receive the attention and protection they deserve.