Associations between Predictors of Indoor Air Quality in Kosovo and Health Symptoms in a Large Representative Survey
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Outdoor and Indoor Air Pollution
1.2. Characteristics of Kosovo as the Wider Study Area
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Research Approach
2.2. Sample Size and Sampling
2.3. Data Processing and Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Findings
3.2. Irritation of the Eyes, Nose, and Throat
3.3. Headaches, Dizziness, and Fatigue
3.4. Difficulty Breathing
3.5. Heart Disease
3.6. Respiratory Disease
3.7. Summary of Regression Results by Exposure
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Questions from the Survey That Were Used for the Statistical Analyses
Questions on Exposure | Possible Responses |
What does your household use for cooking most of the time, including cooking food, making tea/coffee, boiling drinking water? | Electric stove Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) Cooking gas stove Manufactured solid fuel stove Others * |
What does this household use most of the time for heating? | Individual central heating Central heating (municipal) Electrical heater Manufactured stove Heat pump Air Conditioner Others * |
* “Others” was explained in free text. A variety of explanations were provided for that category but, mostly regarding cooking stoves, they turned out to mean, “we do not cook food usually at home” or “our stove is currently out of order”. Similarly, regarding heating devices, they could mostly be interpreted as “no functioning heating system available currently”. | |
Questions on Symptoms | Possible Responses |
Do you/the person we talk about suffer from… Irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat? Headaches, dizziness, and fatigue? Difficulty breathing? Heart disease? Asthma/respiratory disease? | No Sometimes Yes In last spring In last summer * In last fall In last winter * |
* Because use of heating fuels will have a stronger effect during the heating season, we analyzed effects of heating on symptoms rate in summer and in winter separately. |
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Characteristic | Total (n = 7860) | Males (3921) | Females (3939) |
---|---|---|---|
Age (mean, ± std. dev.) | 40.4 (±20.4) | 39.7 (±20.5) | 41.1 (±20.5) |
Cigarettes/day in household (mean, ± std. dev.) | 12.1 (±16.2) | 12.4 (±16.2) | 11.8 (±16.3) |
Urban (n, %) | 3074 (39.1%) | 1509 (38.5%) | 1565 (39.7%) |
No education (n, %) | 311 (4.0%) | 159 (4.1%) | 152 (3.9%) |
Primary education (n, %) | 2383 (30.4%) | 1162 (29.7%) | 1221 (31.1%) |
Lower secondary education (n, %) | 816 (10.4%) | 431 (11.0%) | 385 (9.8%) |
Upper secondary education (n, %) | 2575 (32.8%) | 1286 (32.8%) | 1289 (32.8%) |
Post-secondary, short-cycle tertiary education (n, %) | 597 (7.6%) | 304 (7.8%) | 293 (7.5%) |
Bachelor (n, %) | 973 (12.4%) | 480 (12.3%) | 493 (12.5%) |
Master (n, %) | 160 (2.0%) | 80 (2.0%) | 80 (2.0%) |
Doctor (n, %) | 36 (0.5%) | 16 (0.4%) | 20 (0.5%) |
Missing (n, %) | 9 (0.1%) | 3 (0.1%) | 6 (0.2%) |
Electric stove (n, %) | 4520 (57.5%) | 2253 (57.5%) | 2267 (57.6%) |
LPG stove (n, %) | 300 (3.8%) | 149 (3.8%) | 151 (3.8%) |
Solid fuel stove (n, %) | 3005 (38.2%) | 1504 (38.4%) | 1501 (38.1%) |
Other stove (n, %) | 20 (0.5%) | 15 (0.4%) | 20 (0.5%) |
Central heating (n, %) | 2185 (28.0%) | 1085 (27.9%) | 1100 (28.2%) |
District heating (n, %) | 260 (3.3%) | 115 (3.0%) | 145 (3.7%) |
Electrical heater (n, %) | 561 (7.2%) | 287 (7.4%) | 274 (7.0%) |
Manufactured stove (n, %) | 3408 (43.7%) | 1733 (44.6%) | 1675 (42.9%) |
Heat pump (n, %) | 49 (0.6%) | 20 (0.5%) | 29 (0.7%) |
Air conditioner (n, %) | 166 (2.1%) | 81 (2.1%) | 85 (2.2%) |
Other heating device (n, %) | 1167 (15.0%) | 568 (14.6%) | 599 (15.3%) |
Missing (n, %) | 64 (0.8%) | 32 (0.8%) | 32 (0.8%) |
Symptoms reported * | |||
Irritation of eyes, etc. (n, %) | 98 (1.3%) | 48 (1.2) | 50 (1.3) |
Headaches, etc. (n, %) | 204 (2.6%) | 69 (1.8%) | 135 (3.5%) |
Difficulty breathing (n, %) | 221 (2.8%) | 89 (2.3%) | 132 (3.4%) |
Heart disease (n, %) | 368 (4.7%) | 150 (3.8%) | 218 (5.5%) |
Respiratory disease (n, %) | 150 (1.9%) | 62 (1.6%) | 88 (2.2%) |
Factor | Adjusted Odds Ratio | 95% Confidence Interval | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Type of stove | Pseudo-R2: 0.086 | ||
Electric stove | 1.06 | 0.33; 3.46 | 0.918 |
LPG stove | (referent) | - | - |
Solid fuel stove | 1.89 | 0.57; 6.27 | 0.299 |
Other stove | 64.62 | 15.98; 261.28 | <0.001 |
Type of heating | Pseudo-R2: 0.052 | ||
Central heating | 1.34 | 0.76; 2.36 | 0.309 |
District heating | 4.66 | 2.15; 10.10 | <0.001 |
Electrical heater | 2.49 | 1.44; 5.56 | 0.003 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | 2.50 | 0.33; 18.95 | 0.375 |
Air conditioner | 0.73 | 0.10; 5.43 | 0.759 |
Other heating device | 2.78 | 1.61; 4.87 | <0.001 |
In summer | Pseudo-R2: 0.061 | ||
Central heating | 0.79 | 0.35; 1.77 | 0.565 |
District heating | 3.80 | 1.38; 10.44 | 0.010 |
Electrical heater | 2.89 | 1.06; 5.84 | 0.036 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | missing | ||
Air conditioner | missing | ||
Other heating device | 1.67 | 0.76; 3.65 | 0.203 |
In Winter | Pseudo-R2: 0.065 | ||
Central heating | 1.31 | 0.73; 2.37 | 0.360 |
District heating | 3.83 | 1.63; 9.02 | 0.002 |
Electrical heater | 3.90 | 2.07; 7.35 | <0.001 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | missing | ||
Air conditioner | missing | ||
Other heating device | 2.77 | 1.55; 4.93 | 0.001 |
Cigarettes per day | 1.02 | 1.01; 1.03 | 0.001 |
Factor | Adjusted Odds Ratio | 95% Confidence Interval | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Type of stove | Pseudo-R2: 0.052 | ||
Electric stove | (referent) | - | - |
LPG stove | 2.03 | 1.39; 2.56 | 0.034 |
Solid fuel stove | 1.88 | 1.39; 2.56 | <0.001 |
Other stove | 26.19 | 11.69; 58.71 | <0.001 |
Males | Pseudo-R2: 0.029 | ||
Electric stove | (referent) | - | - |
LPG stove | 1.62 | 0.48; 5.47 | 0.436 |
Solid fuel stove | 1.67 | 1.00; 2.80 | 0.050 |
Other stove | 23.66 | 6.51; 86.00 | <0.001 |
Females | Pseudo-R2: 0.048 | ||
Electric stove | (referent) | - | - |
LPG stove | 2.89 | 1.04; 5.03 | 0.039 |
Solid fuel stove | 2.01 | 1.38; 2.95 | <0.001 |
Other stove | 28.15 | 10.01; 79.15 | <0.001 |
Type of heating | Pseudo-R2: 0.053 | ||
Central heating | 1.74 | 1.18; 2.59 | 0.006 |
District heating | 2.63 | 1.19; 5.79 | 0.016 |
Electrical heater | 1.64 | 0.90; 3.01 | 0.107 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | 5.46 | 1.53; 19.48 | 0.009 |
Air conditioner | 1.67 | 0.58; 4.78 | 0.342 |
Other heating device | 4.27 | 2.92; 6.25 | <0.001 |
In summer | Pseudo-R2: 0.049 | ||
Central heating | 1.97 | 1.33; 2.91 | 0.001 |
District heating | 1.32 | 0.47; 3.71 | 0.605 |
Electrical heater | 1.76 | 0.95; 3.28 | 0.073 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | 3.40 | 0.80; 14.53 | 0.193 |
Air conditioner | 1.99 | 0.57; 4.71 | 0.357 |
Other heating device | 4.26 | 2.93; 6.18 | <0.001 |
In Winter | Pseudo-R2: 0.045 | ||
Central heating | 1.81 | 1.27; 2.60 | 0.001 |
District heating | 2.73 | 1.36; 5.45 | 0.005 |
Electrical heater | 2.67 | 1.65; 4.33 | <0.001 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | 5.79 | 2.00; 16.81 | 0.001 |
Air conditioner | 1.60 | 0.57; 4.48 | 0.370 |
Other heating device | 3.78 | 2.68; 5.34 | <0.001 |
Cigarettes per day | 1.01 | 1.00; 1.02 | 0.038 |
Factor | Adjusted Odds Ratio | 95% Confidence Interval | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Type of stove | Pseudo-R2: 0.144 | ||
Electric stove | (referent) | - | - |
LPG stove | 1.41 | 0.71; 2.77 | 0.324 |
Solid fuel stove | 1.40 | 1.05; 1.87 | 0.021 |
Other stove | 3.84 | 1.27; 11.61 | 0.017 |
Type of heating | Pseudo-R2: 0.154 | ||
Central heating | 1.27 | 0.89; 1.82 | 0.187 |
District heating | 0.64 | 0.20; 2.09 | 0.459 |
Electrical heater | 1.52 | 0.91; 2.56 | 0.112 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | 6.46 | 2.26; 18.45 | <0.001 |
Air conditioner | 0.58 | 0.14; 2.42 | 0.451 |
Other heating device | 2.26 | 1.57; 3.26 | <0.001 |
In summer | Pseudo-R2: 0.132 | ||
Central heating | 1.08 | 0.72; 1.62 | 0.718 |
District heating | 0.91 | 0.32; 2.59 | 0.858 |
Electrical heater | 0.53 | 0.24; 1.21 | 0.132 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | 1.14 | 0.15; 8.82 | 0.897 |
Air conditioner | 0.65 | 0.15; 2.72 | 0.552 |
Other heating device | 1.72 | 1.13; 2.63 | 0.012 |
In Winter | Pseudo-R2: 0.152 | ||
Central heating | 1.15 | 0.82; 1.61 | 0.416 |
District heating | 0.50 | 0.15; 1.63 | 0.252 |
Electrical heater | 1.33 | 0.80; 2.19 | 0.267 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | 5.38 | 1.89; 15.32 | 0.002 |
Air conditioner | 0.71 | 0.22; 2.32 | 0.573 |
Other heating device | 1.86 | 1.31; 2.66 | 0.001 |
Cigarettes per day | 1.01 | 1.01; 1.02 | <0.001 |
Factor | Adjusted Odds Ratio | 95% Confidence Interval | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Type of stove | Pseudo-R2: 0.237 | ||
Electric stove | 1.08 | 0.58; 2.04 | 0.801 |
LPG stove | (referent) | - | - |
Solid fuel stove | 1.53 | 0.81; 2.89 | 0.190 |
Other stove | 3.11 | 0.93; 10.40 | 0.065 |
Males | Pseudo-R2: 0.208 | ||
Electric stove | 1.43 | 0.49; 4.14 | 0.551 |
LPG stove | (referent) | - | - |
Solid fuel stove | 1.49 | 0.51; 4.37 | 0.469 |
Other stove | 1.72 | 0.16; 18.42 | 0.654 |
Females | Pseudo-R2: 0.258 | ||
Electric stove | (referent) | - | - |
LPG stove | 1.13 | 0.51; 2.48 | 0.764 |
Solid fuel stove | 1.78 | 1.30; 2.42 | <0.001 |
Other stove | 4.60 | 1.32; 16.04 | 0.017 |
Type of heating | Pseudo-R2: 0.241 | ||
Central heating | 1.10 | 0.82; 1.47 | 0.529 |
District heating | 1.27 | 0.64; 2.51 | 0.499 |
Electrical heater | 1.14 | 0.73; 1.79 | 0.554 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | 3.34 | 1.10; 10.01 | 0.033 |
Air conditioner | 1.48 | 0.70; 3.12 | 0.303 |
Other heating device | 2.03 | 1.50; 2.75 | <0.001 |
In summer | Pseudo-R2: 0.234 | ||
Central heating | 1.04 | 0.76; 1.42 | 0.819 |
District heating | 0.43 | 0.15; 1.23 | 0.115 |
Electrical heater | 0.48 | 0.25; 0.90 | 0.023 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | 1.91 | 0.52; 7.06 | 0.334 |
Air conditioner | 1.49 | 0.68; 3.28 | 0.316 |
Other heating device | 2.02 | 1.46; 2.79 | <0.001 |
In Winter | Pseudo-R2: 0.237 | ||
Central heating | 1.09 | 0.81; 1.46 | 0.566 |
District heating | 0.62 | 0.26; 1.48 | 0.280 |
Electrical heater | 1.29 | 0.83; 2.01 | 0.248 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | 3.49 | 1.16; 10.54 | 0.026 |
Air conditioner | 1.35 | 0.62; 2.94 | 0.456 |
Other heating device | 1.93 | 1.41; 2.63 | <0.001 |
Cigarettes per day | 1.00 | 0.99; 1.01 | 0.556 |
Factor | Adjusted Odds Ratio | 95% Confidence Interval | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|
Type of stove | Pseudo-R2: 0.093 | ||
Electric stove | 1.83 | 0.57; 5.87 | 0.309 |
LPG stove | (referent) | - | - |
Solid fuel stove | 2.19 | 0.68; 7.07 | 0.191 |
Other stove | 2.01 | 0.21; 21.01 | 0.533 |
Type of stove | Pseudo-R2: 0.106 | ||
Central heating | 1.08 | 0.70; 1.68 | 0.721 |
District heating | 0.93 | 0.28; 3.06 | 0.906 |
Electrical heater | 1.49 | 0.81; 2.75 | 0.205 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | 9.34 | 3.34; 26.29 | <0.001 |
Air conditioner | 1.72 | 0.60; 4.92 | 0.309 |
Other heating device | 2.06 | 1.33; 3.18 | 0.001 |
In summer | Pseudo-R2: 0.094 | ||
Central heating | 0.56 | 0.29; 1.10 | 0.091 |
District heating | (missing) | ||
Electrical heater | 0.62 | 0.21; 1.78 | 0.370 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | 4.90 | 1.09; 22.06 | 0.038 |
Air conditioner | 0.64 | 0.09; 4.75 | 0.659 |
Other heating device | 1.51 | 0.84; 2.71 | 0.164 |
In Winter | Pseudo-R2: 0.110 | ||
Central heating | 1.10 | 0.68; 1.76 | 0.696 |
District heating | 0.38 | 0.05; 2.84 | 0.349 |
Electrical heater | 1.92 | 1.04; 3.53 | 0.036 |
Manufactured stove | (referent) | - | - |
Heat pump | 11.48 | 4.06; 32.45 | <0.001 |
Air conditioner | 2.13 | 0.74; 6.14 | 0.160 |
Other heating device | 1.78 | 1.11; 2.89 | 0.019 |
Cigarettes per day | 1.01 | 1.01; 1.02 | 0.003 |
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Ukëhaxhaj, A.; Ramadani, N.; Sutaj, B.; Moshammer, H.; Zogaj, D.; Sekercioglu, F.; Rexhepi, B. Associations between Predictors of Indoor Air Quality in Kosovo and Health Symptoms in a Large Representative Survey. Buildings 2024, 14, 2579. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082579
Ukëhaxhaj A, Ramadani N, Sutaj B, Moshammer H, Zogaj D, Sekercioglu F, Rexhepi B. Associations between Predictors of Indoor Air Quality in Kosovo and Health Symptoms in a Large Representative Survey. Buildings. 2024; 14(8):2579. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082579
Chicago/Turabian StyleUkëhaxhaj, Antigona, Naser Ramadani, Besa Sutaj, Hanns Moshammer, Drita Zogaj, Fatih Sekercioglu, and Bujar Rexhepi. 2024. "Associations between Predictors of Indoor Air Quality in Kosovo and Health Symptoms in a Large Representative Survey" Buildings 14, no. 8: 2579. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082579