Dilemmas and Solutions for Sustainability-Based Engineering Ethics: Lessons Learned from the Collapse of a Self-Built House in Changsha, Hunan, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and the Self-Built House Collapse Accident in Changsha
2.1. Safety Status in the Field of Housing and Municipal Engineering in China
2.2. Process of the Self-Built House Collapse Accident in Changsha
2.3. Causes of the Self-Built House Collapse Accident in Changsha
- The original five-story building constructed by the owner, who violated laws and regulations, had inherent deficiencies in its quality. In 2003, the owner built a three-story house. In July 2012, the three-story building was demolished and replaced with a five-story (partially six-story) building, without specific location details, which are not provided in Figure 3a. However, the involved owner, without fulfilling any approval procedures or obtaining any permissions, hired a retired construction worker from a building company to hand-draw the design drawings and personally procured construction materials. Moreover, the construction was carried out by an unqualified and mobile construction team. In the construction process, self-mixed concrete with high levels of sand and silt content and low strength was used, particularly the minimum compressive strength of the concrete used in the three columns on the east side of the second floor, which was only 4.3 MPa, significantly lower than the required 20 MPa [75]. The compressive strength of the mortar used in the masonry of the walls on the first and second floors was only 0.4 MPa, which fell far below the required 2.5 MPa [76]. The building adopted a masonry structure, in which the walls and columns constructed with solid blocks and mortar served as the primary load-bearing components. While the first floor had solid walls, the walls from the second to fifth floor improperly used hollow or cavity walls, which had low load-bearing capacity and were no longer in compliance with the Code [76].
- (1)
- The owner illegally expanded the building to a total of six floors. After its initial construction as a partially six-story building, it was later expanded to become a complete six-story structure, as shown in Figure 3b. The exact time of this expansion is unknown, but the schematic diagram was drawn based on data from Baidu Maps in September 2014.
- (2)
- In addition, the owner again violated laws and regulations by further expanding the building to a total of eight floors, exceeding its maximum load-bearing capacity. In July 2018, without fulfilling the necessary construction procedures, the owner once again employed the retired construction worker from the above-mentioned construction company to hand-draw design drawings. They personally procured construction materials and organized an unqualified and mobile construction team to carry out the construction. The additional floors were added, resulting in a structure going from six to eight stories, as shown in Figure 3c. The added three floors adopted a frame structure, with columns, beams, and floor slabs made of cast in situ reinforced concrete. The total load created by the additional structural elements, such as the newly added walls, increased by 46%, significantly increasing the load on the lower floors’ columns. The maximum increase in load on the second-floor east-side column was 71%, exceeding its limit load-bearing capacity by 18%. Furthermore, the overall stability of the building was compromised due to the chaotic arrangement of the structural system. Some columns were misplaced vertically, leading to a structural imbalance. The first and second floors were designed with a single-span, large-space layout, resulting in fewer transverse walls. On the other hand, the third to eighth floors were divided into multiple small rooms, with more transverse walls and higher floor loads. The second floor became the weakest layer structurally and was most vulnerable to damage due to its limited resilience against collapse.
- (3)
- The owner illegally and unlawfully added a steel roof, as shown in Figure 3d. The specific timeline of this addition is unknown.
- (4)
- The owner failed to effectively address significant safety hazards. In July 2019, a network of cracks up to 0.6 m long appeared on the concrete column of the eastern wall on the second floor. The owner, following the advice of the retired worker from the aforementioned construction company, purchased two U-steels for additional support, but this did not completely eliminate the safety hazards. In March 2022, further issues arose with the deformed support U-steels, the detachment of wall tiles, and worsening deformation of the support U-steels. The owner did not take any action to rectify these issues. On 12 April 2022, a testing company, entrusted by the hotel operator in the implicated property, conducted a so-called inspection without bringing any testing equipment and relied solely on taking photographs. On 13 April 2022, they issued a false inspection report for the hotel, classifying it as Bsu grade, stating that it was basically intact and could be used as a hotel without any problems and affirmed its structural safety. On 22 April 2022, the renters informed the owner that the deformation of the support channel steels had worsened, with a maximum gap of approximately 15 mm from the wall. However, the owner still took no measures until the accident occurred.
- (5)
- The involved parties failed to take immediate emergency evacuation measures. Over 2 h before the accident, the bending and deformation of the support U-steels on the second floor intensified, reaching approximately 50 mm, indicating a collapse was imminent. In particular, around 30 min before the accident, the retired worker from the construction company, upon the owner’s request for an on-site inspection, deemed the house unsafe for continued occupancy. Despite this, the owner insisted on further reinforcement and did not organize the evacuation of individuals residing or dining in the house. Just 5 min before the accident, facing a significant risk of collapse, the owner still neglected to promptly notify evacuation, thus missing the final opportunity for occupants inside the house to escape and avoid major casualties.
2.4. Rescue of the Self-Built House Collapse Accident in Changsha
3. Dilemmas of Engineering Ethics
3.1. Identification of Ethical Dilemmas
3.2. Ethical Dilemmas Faced by Engineers
3.2.1. Dilemma of Technological Ethics
3.2.2. Dilemma of Interest Ethics
3.2.3. Dilemma of Responsibility Ethics
3.3. The Dilemma of Government Credibility Deficiency
3.3.1. Lack of Public Trust in Engineering Quality
3.3.2. The Decline of Government Credibility
3.4. The Dilemma of Engineering Ethics Education
3.4.1. Insufficient Emphasis on the Interdisciplinary Nature of Engineering Ethics
3.4.2. Detachment between Theory and Practice in Engineering Ethics Education
3.5. The Collapse of the Condominium Building in Florida, US
4. Solutions of Engineering Ethics
4.1. Enhancing the Ethical Perspectives of Engineers
4.1.1. Enhancing Public Participation in Engineering Decision-Making
4.1.2. Effective Implementation of Technical Assessment in Engineering
4.1.3. Establishing a Sound Legal and Ethical Framework for Engineering
4.2. Promoting Credibility of Government
4.2.1. Deepen Administrative System Reform and Establish a System of Government Credibility
4.2.2. Actively Mobilize the Power of the Media and Create a Healthy Ethical Discourse Environment in Engineering
4.2.3. Adhere to the Concept of Public Nature and Service and Establish a People-Centered Philosophy
4.3. Strengthening Engineering Ethics Education
4.3.1. Adding Engineering Ethics-Related Courses to the Curriculum
4.3.2. Strengthening Engineering Ethics Education in Engineering Practice
4.3.3. Strengthening Professional Ethics Training for Practitioners
4.4. Solutions Taken after the Collapse Accidents
4.4.1. The Self-Built House Collapse Accident in Changsha
4.4.2. The Condominium Building Collapse in Florida, US
4.5. The Ethical Analysis and Decision-Making Model for Engineering Failures
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Year | Number of Accidents | Number of Deaths | Number of Major Accidents * | Number of Deaths in Major Accidents |
---|---|---|---|---|
2015 | 442 | 554 | 22 | 85 |
2016 | 634 | 735 | 27 | 94 |
2017 | 692 | 807 | 23 | 90 |
2018 | 735 | 841 | 22 | 87 |
2019 | 786 | 921 | 24 | 110 |
2020 | 695 | 798 | 22 | 89 |
2021 | 736 | 823 | 16 | 68 |
2022 | 564 | 640 | 12 | 52 |
Date | Building Name | Place | Fatalities /Injuries | Cause of Collapse |
---|---|---|---|---|
29 December 2014 | Gymnasium of High School affiliated to Tsinghua University | Beijing | 10/4 | Construction mistakes |
16 May 2019 | Factory 1#, 148 Zhaohua Road | Shanghai | 12/13 | Design errors, Construction mistakes |
20 May 2019 | Steel building | Baise, Guangxi | 6/87 | Illegal contracting, Design errors, Construction mistakes, Rain and wind |
27 June 2019 | Building 7#, Lotus Riverside View Garden | Shanghai | 1/0 | Construction mistakes |
8 July 2019 | Shenzhen Sports Center | Shenzhen, Guangdong | 3/3 | Construction mistakes |
7 March 2020 | Xinjia Hotel | Quanzhou, Fujian | 29/42 | Construction mistakes (illegal enlargement) |
29 August 2020 | Juxian Restaurant | Linfen, Shanxi | 29/28 | No professional design, illegal enlargement |
19 June 2021 | Self-built house | Chenzhou, Hunan | 5/7 | No professional design, Construction mistakes |
12 July 2021 | Four Seasons Open Source Hotel | Suzhou, Jiangsu | 17/5 | Construction mistakes |
16 July 2021 | Rest Hall | Yongan, Fujian | 8/2 | Design errors, Construction mistakes |
23 November 2021 | Lakeside Hotel | Jinhua, Zhejiang | 6/6 | Design errors, Construction mistakes |
29 April 2022 | Self-built house | Changsha, Hunan | 54/9 | No professional design, Illegal enlargement |
23 July 2023 | Gymnasium of No. 34 Middle School | Qiqihaer, Heilongjiang | 11/0 | Construction mistakes |
Date | Time | Description |
---|---|---|
28 April 2022 | 20:00 p.m. | On the second floor, the staff of the restaurant noticed that a concrete column on the eastern side, as well as the adjacent wall tiles, had become detached. The plaster on the wall had cracked, and the concrete at the base of the column had been crushed, with exposed and bent reinforcing bars. |
29 April 2022 | 10:15 a.m. | A supporting U-steel beam on the second floor (purchased by the owner in July 2019 to reinforce the column that had developed cracks) had undergone severe deformation, creating a gap of approximately 50 mm from the wall. |
29 April 2022 | 11:50 a.m. | The owner went out to purchase construction materials in preparation for further reinforcement. |
29 April 2022 | 12:19 p.m. | The exterior wall at the southeast corner, where the first and second floor ring beams meet, exhibited peeling plaster, exposed bricks, and outward bulging, signifying the onset of wall deformation. Neighbors and the village group leader present at the scene advised the owner to evacuate, but their attempts to persuade were unsuccessful. |
29 April 2022 | 12:21 p.m. | The eastern wall of the restaurant on the second floor made abnormal noises, and objects fell from the ceiling and the eastern exterior wall. The restaurant manager promptly urged two staff members and three diners to leave. |
29 April 2022 | 12:24 p.m. | The entire building collapsed in a sink-like manner, taking approximately 4 s. |
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Tang, D.; Huang, M. Dilemmas and Solutions for Sustainability-Based Engineering Ethics: Lessons Learned from the Collapse of a Self-Built House in Changsha, Hunan, China. Buildings 2024, 14, 2581. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082581
Tang D, Huang M. Dilemmas and Solutions for Sustainability-Based Engineering Ethics: Lessons Learned from the Collapse of a Self-Built House in Changsha, Hunan, China. Buildings. 2024; 14(8):2581. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082581
Chicago/Turabian StyleTang, Dina, and Minshui Huang. 2024. "Dilemmas and Solutions for Sustainability-Based Engineering Ethics: Lessons Learned from the Collapse of a Self-Built House in Changsha, Hunan, China" Buildings 14, no. 8: 2581. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082581