1. Introduction
Energy poverty is the inability to meet the necessary energy needs of households and has threatened human well-being and exacerbated climate change [
1]. Energy poverty poses a significant challenge that proves challenging to measure, monitor, and effectively tackle through policy interventions. The lack of sufficient data on those households affected by energy poverty and a flawed definition of the concept itself have caused an inadequate addressing of this issue [
2].
The four fundamental pillars necessary to alleviate energy poverty include ensuring reliable access to electricity and energy, promoting the use of resilient and cleaner cooking fuels, encouraging efficient electricity consumption, and expanding the deployment of renewable energy sources [
3].
Energy poverty impacted 4.5 million individuals, including 9.5% of the population in Spain and 9.3% in Europe, in 2022 [
4]. The International Energy Agency (IEA) projects that by 2030, approximately 2.4 billion individuals will lack access to clean cooking facilities, with approximately 1.5 billion in Asia relying on solid fuels. This surpasses the yearly adoption target for clean cooking technologies, which stands at 280 million, and exceeds the lack of access to electricity by a factor of eleven [
2]. This report projects a global increase of 20 million people without access to electricity, reaching nearly 775 million by 2030, primarily concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa [
5]. Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia contain five out of every six impoverished individuals on a worldwide scale [
5].
Vulnerability is characterized as a state of high exposure to specific risks and uncertainties combined with a diminished capacity to protect or defend against them and to cope with their negative consequences [
6]. For instance, in the context of natural disasters, vulnerability might involve living in an area prone to earthquakes without access to adequate emergency services or resilient infrastructure [
7]. In economic terms, it could refer to individuals or communities with limited financial resources and employment opportunities, making them more susceptible to economic downturns and job losses [
5]. Vulnerability in a health context might include populations with pre-existing medical conditions who have less access to healthcare facilities, thus being more exposed to adverse health outcomes during a pandemic [
8]. By providing these examples, the multifaceted nature of vulnerability becomes clearer, encompassing environmental, economic, and health dimensions.
Vulnerability permeates all societal levels, constituting an intrinsic component of the human experience, impacting both individuals and the broader societal framework. A study conducted by the Autonomous University of the State of Mexico categorizes vulnerabilities into three main groups [
9]:
Socio-demographic vulnerability: This refers to socially vulnerable groups and demographic dynamics that influence population development within a given territory, and primarily focuses on the population’s well-being concerning education, health, and access to services. Populations are defined as having high and low socio-demographic vulnerability based on their socio-economic level, educational level, age, population density, and percentage of migrant population [
10].
Socio-economic vulnerability: Socio-economic vulnerability is statistically significantly related to health-related variables, such as medical diagnosis and health perception and to the practice of sport. Vulnerability and physical exercise have a more direct influence on perceived health than on diagnosed health (Aguilar-Palacio et al., 2013).
Vulnerability of infrastructure: The physical infrastructure that accommodates citizens’ lives holds significant importance. Poor conditions in this regard hinder the satisfactory development of daily life, as adapting the habitat to the population’s needs is a fundamental aspect of human existence [
9].
Thus, a methodology is developed for assessing environmental equity at an urban level with high spatial resolution. Environmental equity is defined as “the distribution of amenities and disadvantages across individuals and groups” [
9]. Moreover, environmental equity is intrinsically linked to vulnerability assessment, particularly in urban areas where disparities in access to resources and exposure to environmental risks can exacerbate social inequalities. Vulnerability encompasses the exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity of individuals and communities to environmental hazards [
11].
Environmental justice refers to the fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens among all individuals and groups, regardless of race, socioeconomic status, or other demographic factors. For example, environmental justice addresses issues such as the disproportionate siting of hazardous waste facilities in low-income or minority communities, which leads to higher exposure to pollutants and associated health risks. It also includes ensuring equal access to green spaces, clean air, and safe drinking water. For instance, urban areas with more affluent populations often have better access to parks and recreational facilities, while marginalized communities may lack these amenities, impacting their overall well-being [
12]. By highlighting these examples, the concept of environmental justice becomes clearer, demonstrating its relevance in addressing urban inequalities and promoting sustainable and equitable urban development. Addressing energy poverty through the lens of environmental justice ensures that vulnerable populations are not disproportionately affected by energy inefficiencies, and that they have equitable access to clean energy resources [
13].
This paper aims to identify municipalities in the Valencian Community and the city of Valencia with the highest energy vulnerability to provide assistance and opportunities to prevent this unfavourable situation. Areas with excessive or insufficient consumption will be observed to attempt to determine energy efficiency.
To better understand this context, it is important to note that energy poverty is broadly defined as the situation in which households lack access to modern energy services, which can have significant negative impacts on residents’ welfare [
14]. More specifically, energy poverty is characterized by households that are unable to afford sufficient energy for heating, cooling, lighting, and cooking, or that spend a disproportionate amount of their income on energy expenses. For instance, a common benchmark is that households spending more than 10% of their income on energy bills are considered energy poor [
12]. Additionally, energy poverty can involve inadequate access to reliable and clean energy sources, such as electricity and gas, thereby affecting the quality of life and health of the residents. In many developing countries, energy poverty also encompasses the reliance on traditional biomass for cooking and heating, leading to indoor air pollution and associated health risks [
15]. By specifying these criteria, the concept of energy poverty becomes clearer, highlighting the multifaceted challenges faced by affected households.
Both variables will be correlated to obtaining the energy poverty index, which measures the situation where a household is unable to afford payments for the minimum energy services needed to cover basic needs. The energy poverty index is calculated using several indicators that capture different dimensions of energy poverty. These indicators typically include:
Energy Expenditure: The percentage of household income spent on energy bills. A common threshold is that households spending more than 10% of their income on energy are considered energy poor [
16]
Access to Energy Services: The availability and reliability of energy sources such as electricity, gas, and heating. This includes whether the household has access to a stable and adequate energy supply.
Energy Efficiency of the Home: The condition and energy efficiency of the housing structure, including insulation, heating systems, and appliances. Poor housing conditions can lead to higher energy consumption and costs.
Indoor Temperature: Whether the household can maintain an adequate indoor temperature during winter and summer. Inability to keep the home warm in winter or cool in summer can indicate energy poverty.
Self-Reporting Energy Poverty: Surveys and assessments where households report their own experiences with energy affordability and adequacy.
By integrating these indicators, the energy poverty index provides a comprehensive measure of energy poverty that goes beyond mere expenditure to include access, efficiency, and subjective experiences. This index helps to identify households that are struggling to meet their basic energy needs, allowing for more targeted and effective interventions.
This analysis deals with the analysis of one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), SDG 7 “Affordable and Clean Energy,” that aims to ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all, and also with the objectives of the Valencian Urban Agenda 2030 at local level.
4. Conclusions
This study, conducted on vulnerability, energy efficiency, and energy poverty indices across the Valencian Community and its capital city, Valencia, provides valuable insights into the socio-economic disparities and energy challenges faced by different regions and neighbourhoods.
The vulnerability indices analysed for residential, socio-economic, and socio-demographic dimensions reveal significant variations across census sections and neighbourhoods. In the Valencian Community, areas like Canet d’en Berenguer and Benicàssim exhibit lower vulnerability, whereas regions such as Senija and Callosa de Segura face higher vulnerability. These indices are crucial for identifying areas requiring targeted interventions to improve living conditions and socio-economic stability.
In Valencia city, neighbourhoods like Benicalap and El Calvari experience higher vulnerability in terms of equipment and socio-economic factors, contrasting with areas like Sant Pau and La Seu, which show lower vulnerability levels. These findings underscore the importance of localized strategies to address specific vulnerabilities within urban settings.
This study has provided a comprehensive analysis of energy poverty in the Valencian Community, revealing that approximately 25% of the areas have a high energy poverty index. The data indicate a strong correlation (r = 0.78) between energy poverty and socioeconomic vulnerability. Specifically, areas with lower income levels and higher unemployment rates are disproportionately affected, with energy costs consuming up to 15% of household incomes in the most vulnerable regions.
Examples of Application:
Policy Making: The Vulnerability Index can be used by policymakers to identify and prioritize areas needing urgent intervention, ensuring resources are allocated efficiently.
Aid Programs: NGOs and government agencies can use the index to design and implement targeted aid programs, such as subsidized energy tariffs or home insulation grants for high-risk households.
Urban Planning: Urban planners can incorporate the index into their development plans to ensure new infrastructure projects address energy vulnerabilities, such as integrating renewable energy sources in the most affected communities.
Overall, this study underscores the critical need for targeted and data-driven policy interventions to alleviate energy poverty, enhance living conditions, and promote social equity in the Valencian Community.
The analyses of consumption patterns and energy poverty indices further highlight disparities in energy use and affordability. In the Valencian Community, disparities range from low to very high consumption levels across different census sections, influencing overall energy poverty levels. Similarly, in Valencia city, neighbourhoods vary widely in their energy poverty index, with areas like El Calvari and Benicalap experiencing higher energy poverty rates compared to regions like La Seu and Exposició.
Comparisons with other regions, such as municipalities in Brazil and cities like Madrid, underscore the unique socio-economic contexts and challenges faced by the Valencian Community and Valencia. While Valencia exhibits higher energy poverty rates compared to Madrid, it fares better than certain Brazilian municipalities, highlighting the need for context-specific policies and interventions tailored to local conditions.
The findings from this study provide actionable insights for policymakers to develop targeted interventions aimed at reducing vulnerability and alleviating energy poverty. Strategies could include enhancing infrastructure, improving socio-economic conditions, promoting energy-efficient practices, and ensuring equitable access to resources across different neighbourhoods and regions.
In conclusion, the comprehensive analysis of vulnerability, energy efficiency, and energy poverty indices not only identifies critical areas of concern but also informs evidence-based policymaking to foster sustainable development and enhance quality of life for residents across the Valencian Community and Valencia city.
4.1. Advantages, Disadvantages, and Limitations
The analysis of the proposed study has notable advantages, disadvantages, and limitations, which are highlighted below:
Advantages:
Comprehensive integration of socio-demographic, socio-economic, and residential data.
Identify specific areas requiring policy intervention.
Use of geospatial analysis to visually represent vulnerability and energy consumption patterns.
Disadvantages:
Dependence on the availability and accuracy of existing data sources.
Potential biases in data collection methods affecting the results.
Limited to the Valencian Community and the city of Valencia, which may not be representative of other regions.
Limitations:
The study does not account for temporary changes in energy consumption patterns.
Assumptions of homogeneity in population demographics may not hold true in all areas.
The model’s boundary conditions restrict the generalizability of the findings in other contexts.
4.2. Summary of Conclusions
Summary of Findings:
The study identified regions within the Valencian Community and the city of Valencia with high vulnerability and energy poverty.
Significant correlations were found between socio-economic indicators and energy consumption patterns.
Specific Recommendations:
Implement targeted energy efficiency programs in identified high vulnerability areas.
Enhance data collection methods to include more granular socio-demographic information.
Increase public awareness and education regarding energy consumption and conservation.
Future Work:
Further research to include temporal variability in energy consumption data.
Expand the study to include other regions for comparative analysis.
Develop predictive models to anticipate changes in vulnerability due to socio-economic shifts.