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Article

Physicochemical Analysis of Historical Ordu Taşbaşı Church Mortars and Recommendations for Restoration

by
Ali Sarıalioğlu
1,
Zeki Karaca
2 and
Erdem Türkeli
3,*
1
Samsun Directorate of Surveying and Monuments, Kale District, Kazımpaşa Street 25, İlkadım 55030, Türkiye
2
Civil Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Körfez District 64, Atakum 55270, Türkiye
3
Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Construction Department, Ordu University, Cumhuriyet District, Mustafa Kemal Blv. 478, Ordu 52200, Türkiye
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2024, 14(9), 2743; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092743
Submission received: 26 March 2024 / Revised: 14 August 2024 / Accepted: 26 August 2024 / Published: 31 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Throughout history, the architecture of worship structures has been shaped based on different cultures and belief systems during the Roman, Seljuk, Anatolian Principalities, and Ottoman periods. Additionally, it is understood that the sociocultural and ritual structure in which the worship place is built plays a significant role in church architecture. In province of Ordu, rich in historical and cultural heritage, historical structures outside the city center have not been well preserved. In recent years, neglected historical structures have been restored through various methods with public investments, aiming to reintegrate them into urban life. Through chemical and mineralogical (by microscopy) examinations aimed at determining the types of historical structural materials used for this purpose, the preservation of historical structures in Ordu province and their transfer to future generations is targeted. Church structures, holding a distinct significance in the region’s history, exhibit various characteristics in terms of location, climate, and sociocultural and ritual aspects in the Black Sea region. In this regard, the restoration of the historical Taşbaşı Church in the Altınordu district of Ordu province has been carried out considering scientific techniques and methods, serving as a guide for similar studies in the region in terms of laboratory analysis, studies, planning, project development, and implementation stages.

1. Introduction

Historic structures in the Altınordu District of Ordu Province have been neglected despite the province of Ordu’s rich cultural and historical legacy. Recently, with public funding, they have been repaired using a variety of construction approaches with the goal of reintegrating them into urban life.
One example of these efforts is the restoration of the historical Ordu Taşbaşı Church, which has been carried out considering physicochemical material analysis, studies, planning, project development, and implementation stages using current scientific techniques and methods.
During the preparation phase of the projects of the mentioned historical church, regional studies have revealed that there are significant similarities in terms of Roman–Byzantine and Seljuk–Ottoman Orthodox church construction techniques.
The long-term sustainability of historically significant structures depends on the selection of materials that are suitable for both the construction purpose and regional factors (sea effect, seasonal rains, and temperature changes in the Black Sea Region), as well as the compatibility and integrity of different materials constituting the structure, creating a common material coherence. Before undertaking restoration applications on historical structures, it is crucial to investigate the historical features of the structure and conduct mineralogical examinations of structural materials. This is important for choosing restoration materials that are suitable for the historical structure.
Despite its rich historical and cultural heritage, the city of Ordu stands out as an area with limited research conducted. In Ordu province, which encompasses important religious, civil, and social architectural works, including the city center, it is observed that these structures have undergone alterations in their original structural features due to restoration work that was not faithful to the original design in the past. Additionally, recent scientific research and developed projects aim to preserve these structures and securely pass them on to future generations. For this purpose, samples of structural materials (mortar and plaster) from Ordu Taşbaşı Church have been examined using various chemical and other methods.
Like other historical cultural assets in the region, namely hammams, churches etc., additive materials such as local lime, clay, aggregate, and brick powder are used in the content of Khorasan mortar, in which the strength and durability (resistance to time) performance is expected to be high.
In the literature review conducted on structures similar to the one examined, local, national, and international scientific studies were encountered.
Gündoğdu [1] conducted research on the architectural complex in Sinop city center, known as ‘Balatlar Church’ or ‘Mitridates Palace’, dating back to the Late Roman–Early Byzantine periods. The study provided insights into the structures and proposed restoration recommendations. Pekmezci [2] examined the classification of mortars used in some historical structures in the Çukurova Region (Cilicia) and offered recommendations for repair mortars. Batır [3] investigated the material and technical characteristics of religious structures built during the Turkish era in the city center of Amasya. The study assessed the structural and material features of these structures. Borges et al. [4] investigated the durability of lime mortars of historical structures in humid environments. Also, ancient lime mortars exposed to marine influences were examined. Kurucu [5] explored the development of the Ottoman-era architectural fabric in Ordu, a city located at a crucial strategic point in the Anatolian and Eastern Black Sea Regions. The research focused on studying the architectural fabric in and around the city of Ordu. Pekmezci [6] (pp. 126–144) studied the causes of deterioration in lime-based materials and examined repair methods. The study provided insights into fundamental repair methods to be followed in historical structures and offered opinions on the selection of repair materials. Uğur and Güleç [7] investigated the binders and characteristics used in mortars, plaster, and other composite materials. Akcan [8] conducted a detailed examination of the physicochemical and mineralogical properties of the mortars of historical structures in the Harran district of Urfa province. Oğuz et al. [9] (pp. 401–413) examined the mechanical, physical, chemical, and microstructural properties of structural materials such as mortar, brick, and stone used in the theater in Myra, built during the Roman period, and in Plakoma in the Andriake Port within the Antalya province. Aysal et al. [10] investigated the chemical analyses, mineralogy, petrography, and geological factors influencing site selection of the mortars and plasters of historical structures in the ancient city of Knidos in the Datça district of Muğla province.
Dilaria et al. [11] (pp. 145–154) conducted research on the classification of ground bed mortars in some historical structures in Rome. Materials were compared with traditional Vitruvius descriptions and custom construction techniques. Güleç [12] (pp. 134–160) examined the physicochemical properties of structural materials in the Divriği Grand Mosque and provided restoration recommendations. Nicola and Nicola [13] (pp. 281–285) conducted studies on interior and exterior plaster mortars. Kahraman et al. [14] conducted research on the physicochemical properties of mortars in open cisterns located in the Historic Peninsula of Istanbul and the Valens Aqueduct. Argan [15] worked on preservation recommendations for the urban conservation area of Ordu-Ünye and the Rasim Sırmabıyık house. Eralkan [16] examined examples of civilian architecture in the Bafra district of Samsun province and conducted studies on conservation recommendations. Yeğin and Öztürk [17] investigated the physicochemical test results of lime mortar, the binding material, within the scope of the restoration project for the Armenian Protestant Church in Elazığ. Kekeç and Işık [18] conducted studies on preventive conservation methods and conservation recommendations applied to the floor mosaic of Savatra Church.
Kotlyar et al. [19] represented the findings of the investigation into the lime mortars used in ancient brickwork. Montesano et al. [20] studied the multi-analytical characterization of ancient mortars from the Anfiteatro Flavio (Pozzuoli) that date to the first and second centuries CE by using macroscopic, mineralogical, petrographic, and chemical investigations. Destefani et al. [21] studied natural hydraulic lime (NHL) based mortars with salt inhibitor compounds, and several formulations were created in an effort to increase their salt resistance. Vailati et al. [22] created a new composite that is unprecedented in the world of fibrous mortars, which is based on NHL with Sisal short fibers that are arranged randomly within the mortar matrix. Carvalho et al. [23] conducted research on mortars and binders on the Medieval Gubbio City Walls in Italy. Posani et al. [24] added conservation to the historic buildings’ exterior walls with thermal insulation while maintaining their value and individual identities. Jordán et al. [25] performed the first application of an ATR-FTIR approach for quantitative mineralogical investigation in order to examine historical mortars. Latka et al. [26] examined the mortars in four masonry structures built at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries in the historical center of Krakow. Monaco et al. [27] focused on naturally occurring pozzolanic lime mortars, which are extensively utilized throughout all of Italy, not only the Neapolitan region. Alonso-Olazabal et al. [28] characterized the mortar materials used in the walls and floors at the Arroyo de la Dehesa de Velasco site, which is close to the Roman city of Uxama Argaela. Branco et al. [29] evaluated the novel and long-lasting qualities of mortars made of lime for use in restoring historic structures. Kang et al. [30] highlighted how important hydraulic lime is to the long-term preservation of Korea’s architectural legacy by performing scientific and historical research. Angiolilli et al. [31] experimentally evaluated how adding short glass fibers to the mortar matrix with varying concentrations and aspect ratios can improve the mechanical properties of lime-based mortar. Rispoli et al. [32] focused on the archaeometric characterization of mortars from Villa del Pezzolo, a Roman villa situated in Seiano, Napoli-Campania, Italy. Carvalho et al. [33] analyzed mortar samples from the historic Palace of Knossos for chemical, mineralogical, and morphological characterization by using optical microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, simultaneous thermogravimetry and differential thermal analysis. Klimek and Frańczak [34] focused on recycled stone aggregate mortars utilized in historic object reconstruction. Vucetic et al. [35] primarily concerned with the biostimulated healing of cracks in samples of lime mortar, both newly constructed and historical. Pavlík et al. [36] studied about repair mortars based on hydrated lime, natural hydraulic lime, or cement–lime binder that were composed with crushed lava granulate in place of all the silica sand.
The novelty of this study to the technical literature that there is no other study about the restoration practice of the historical Taşbaşı Church that considers the physicochemical analysis of mortars. Therefore, in this context, it is envisaged that this study could serve as a guiding reference for academicians and technical professionals interested in conducting research in this field.

2. History and General Information about Historical Taşbaşı Church

2.1. The Location and Background of the Historical Taşbaşı Church

In this study, physicochemical research has been conducted on the plaster and joint mortars of Ordu Taşbaşı Church, located in Altınordu District, Ordu Province. A photograph depicting the historical and post-restoration condition of Ordu Taşbaşı Church is presented in Figure 1 [37].
The map indicating the location of Ordu Taşbaşı Church is presented in Figure 2 [38]. In Figure 2, the red circle on the left is denoting the place of Ordu Taşbaşı Church on Turkey map. Also, the red circle on the right shows the enlarged view and exact location of Ordu Taşbaşı Church shown with the red circle on the left.
According to the examinations conducted in the archive of the Samsun Cultural Heritage Protection Regional Board Directorate (File number 52.00/19 related to Taşbaşı Church in Altınordu District, Ordu Province) [39], some of the information given below is obtained.
The structure, known to have been built in 1853, has survived to the present day through various purposes over time. In general, the plan and facade features of Taşbaşı Church have remained unchanged while serving different purposes. From the time of its construction until the population exchange in 1924, the church served as a place of worship for the Greek community in Ordu. Remaining vacant until 1937, the structure was then used as a prison for forty years. In the 1940s, the dome covering the main structure was demolished deliberately in order to use the later added wooden mezzanine floor as prison, and the collapsed section was completed with a flat roof.
As a result of restorations carried out in 1983 and 1990, the structure took on its present form. In the year 2000, the structure began to be used as a cultural center.
Ordu Taşbaşı Church remained vacant after the departure of the Greek residents in 1924 due to the population exchange, and was used as ‘Ordu Prison’ from 1937 to 1977. In this prison, there were two dormitories for adults, one dormitory for children, and a separate dormitory for women located outside the main structure [39].
After the original dome on the church’s roof collapsed in the 1940s, it was not reconstructed, and a flat roof was installed for the structure’s use as a prison. In 1977, when the city prison relocated, the church structure became vacant, and restoration efforts in 1983 started. The original dome, which was destroyed in the 1940s, was faithfully reconstructed with minimal differences during the restoration in 1983. However, after progressing for a while, the cited restoration activity remained incomplete. In the late 1990s, a new restoration initiative was launched for the church structure. Following the completion of the restoration in the church structure, it was inaugurated as the ‘Taşbaşı Cultural Center’ on 10 April 2000. Since then, the structure has been used for cultural activities. In 2018, further restoration applications were carried out to bring the structure in line with its original state, and the efforts were completed in 2019 [39].

2.2. Structural Features of the Historical Taşbaşı Church

Taşbaşı Church was constructed in 1853 on land measuring 1821.05 m2, occupying an area of approximately 470 m2. Originally situated right on the seaside, the structure is currently located just west of the Samsun–Trabzon coastal road, which was created through land reclamation. The structure, elevated about 20 m above sea level on the main rock, has been placed by the filling of the sea over time (See Figure 1 and Figure 2). Due to the difference in elevation, a considerably high rubble stone wall has been constructed between the coastal road and the current structure. Based on the conducted studies, three distinct periods have been identified in the history of the structure, corresponding to its different uses [39].
First Period: The years during which the structure served as a church from 1853 to 1940;
Second Period: The years when the original dome of the structure collapsed and was replaced by a flat roof, with various additions made to both the interior and exterior for its use as a prison;
Third Period: The start of restoration efforts, the construction of a dome in accordance with the original design, the removal of additions, and the process of restoring the structure to its authentic state (spanning from the beginning of restoration until the present day).

2.3. Plan Features

The structure, constructed in the east–west direction, follows a three-aisled basilica (church) plan type, consisting of a narthex, naos, and apses (See Figure 3).
Access to the narthex is provided by two barrel vault doors on the north and south facades of the structure (Figure 4). One of these cited doors are provided with the red dotted circle in Figure 4.
A decorative band of cut stone profiles with ‘C’ and ‘S’ curves is present in a row on the barrel vault. The ceiling of the narthex, measuring approximately 3.90 m × 13.00 m and having a rectangular plan, is divided into three equal sections by two barrel arches supported by four pilasters located on the inner walls in the east and west directions. Additionally, the space is covered by three cross vaults resting on these arches (Figure 5).
On the east wall of the narthex, there are three doors. These doors are placed within the gaps divided into three equal parts by two pilasters (columns or pillars within the wall). The surroundings of the doors are bordered by a row of ‘S’-shaped profiles. A semicircular niche is created above each door. At the level of the pilasters on the wall, high-relief horizontal motifs and ‘C’-shaped lintels are positioned, while their lower parts are designed in the shape of ‘C’ and ‘S’-shaped column bases (See Figure 5 and Figure 6).
A three-armed staircase with twenty-eight steps is placed in the northwest corner of the narthex to access the entrasol floor. On the west wall, there are three windows. The inner surfaces of the windows facing the interior are in a depressed-arch design, while towards the exterior, they are designed as tapered lamp-shaped windows. The entrasol floor has an approximately 12.75 m × 4.85 m rectangular plan and is situated in the north-south direction (Figure 3) [40].

2.4. Facade Features and Decorations

The structure is constructed with region-specific, light-yellow-colored cut stones. The south facade of the structure is vertically divided into six sections with pilasters on the interior walls (See Figure 1 and Figure 4). The pilasters dividing the facade are extended to the ground, anchored with ‘C’ and ‘S’ shaped bases [39,40].

3. Materials and Methods

The experimental studies and physicochemical analyses conducted on the historical Taşbaşı Church structure were carried out at the Material Research and Conservation Laboratory (MAKLAB) of the Department of Cultural Heritage Preservation and Restoration, Faculty of Fine Arts, Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli University [41,42,43].
Samples of structural materials, including plaster and mortar (approximately 60 gr.), from Taşbaşı Church were initially taken with a hammer and chisel from the regions indicated in the plan in Figure 7, and first visually evaluated in terms of color.
Then, the plaster and mortar samples considered were documented by photography (with the camera of mobile phone-3 megapixels), categorized, and coded for analysis (Table 1 and Table 2, and Figure 8). The red dots in Figure 8 is representing the places where samples OTK-S1 and OTK-S2 are obtained. Also, the red dotted lines are connecting the enlarged and normal views of the places where samples OTK-S1 and OTK-S2 are cut out.
The plaster and joint mortar samples taken from the columns and the south wall of Taşbaşı Church were initially weighed dry (the mass loss is approximately 1–2% before and after oven for the samples considered) to determine aggregate and binder ratios. Subsequently, they were treated with dilute acid (5% HCl) to eliminate the binder CO32− (total carbonate) content (Figure 9).
The thin sections of plaster and joint mortar samples from the historical Taşbaşı Church were prepared and examined under an optical microscope. The thin sections were prepared by hardening the samples to reveal all layers from the outer to the inner layers [44,45]. A LEICA Research Polarized DMLP Model optical microscope with both top and bottom illumination was used for examinations. The photographs were taken with a Leica DFC280 digital camera (Manufacturer: Leica Microsystems, City: Wetzlar, Country: Germany) attached to the microscope, and evaluations were conducted using Leica Qwin Digital Imaging Software (version 1.9) [46] (pp. 120–127). The rocks and minerals constituting the aggregate were identified using the Point Counting Program [41,42].

4. Results and Discussion

After filtering with a metallic filter, washing with tap water, and drying, the plaster and joint mortar samples, separated from lime and all carbonate contents to obtain the aggregate portion, were weighed again after drying at room temperature, and the total binder and aggregate quantities were determined by weight (Table 3).
A systematic screening process [47] was applied to the samples (non CO32− carbonate containing aggregates) using sieves ranging from 63 μm to 1000 μm to determine the aggregate particle size distributions granulometrically (Table 3 and Figure 10).
After examining Table 3, it is observed that the total aggregate (non CO32− carbonate containing) content of plaster samples is 38.97% and 47.15% for the OTK-S2 and OTK-S1 samples, respectively. Additionally, a simple evaluation based on the total aggregate/binder ratios indicates that the plaster and joint mortar samples contain low levels of acid-insoluble total aggregate content. The aggregates obtained after the acidic treatment of plasters (Figure 10) were sieved through granulometric screening, resulting in six different partitions presented in Table 3 with various sieve intervals. Accordingly, the ratio of clay/silt-sized aggregate in plaster and joint mortar samples was 3.49% and 3.50%, respectively. The content of very coarse sand-sized aggregates (>1000 µm) in plaster and joint mortar was also determined as 15.53% and 35.30%, respectively. The aggregates excluding total clay/silt and very coarse sand aggregates (in a percentage that sums up to 100%) also constitute the silt/sand-sized aggregate content of the analyzed samples. According to the Wentworth classification, the main aggregate content of the plaster and joint mortar samples in the cited historical church consists of fine (0–250 µm)/medium (250–1000 µm)/coarse (>1000 µm) sand-sized aggregates on average [48].
After passing through the acidic aggregate/binder analysis (Figure 11), the content and particle types of the obtained aggregates in plaster and joint mortar samples were examined under a binocular microscope.
It was observed that the aggregates in plaster and joint mortar, in terms of their content, predominantly exhibited angular and coarse-grained structures (Figure 12).
Table 4 presents the petrographic components determined by optical microscope analysis of plaster and joint mortar samples.
As part of the restoration efforts for the historical Taşbaşı Church, research has been conducted to identify the quarries and production regions of the materials to be used. The results are outlined in Table 5 [43].
In evaluating the materials listed in Table 5, considering their extraction from the region where the cited historical church is located and the transportation distance, the preference for these quarries in restoration applications would be beneficial in terms of material compatibility and cost. Also, in Figure 13 [49], a map (scale 1:2,500,000) showing the location of the areas provided in Table 5 is represented.
In the studies conducted, it has been understood that the region possesses many quarries of natural building materials that can be preferred and used in the restoration practice of historical masonry structures.
As a result of the chronological analysis conducted regarding the materials used on the facades of the historical Taşbaşı Church (utilized in three different periods), it has been understood that the unconscious repairs and interventions on the structure have led to the loss of its originality.
If it is necessary to plaster an existing wall to make it impermeable, aggregates with suitable characteristics (that has same binder mechanical and chemical properties) and granulometry matching the original mortar analysis of the structural element, along with a high dosage of binder, should be preferred. To protect the structural element from water effects, superficial hydrophobic treatment (to resist freezing and protect the mortar mix from the harmful effects of seawater, etc.) should be applied. In repaired structural elements, it is necessary for these elements to exhibit sufficient flexibility to limit porosity, take precautions against shrinkage cracks (adding brick fragments to the plaster and joint mortars by considering the air temperature in order not to mortar harden), and monitor the opening and closing rates of these cracks under load effects. Otherwise, it has been observed that brittle cracking occurs in the restored structural elements of historical structures.
The author’s experiences obtained from the studies conducted so far have shown that tuff fragments and quarry sand (between 63–1000 µm), which are planned to be used as aggregates in the repair mortar, should be slightly moistened before use. Additionally, when preparing the mortar, the lime cream formed in the concrete bucket should be removed, and after reaching a certain consistency, the aggregate–additive mixture should be added in specific proportions and mixed. This helps to prevent early–late hardening and chemical adverse effects of the binder.
During the restoration of the historical Taşbaşı Church, partially deteriorated structural elements were completed using materials with the same properties as the original ones. Missing or lost parts were integrated based on similar elements existing in the structure. Throughout the restoration process, the use of cement as a material was strictly avoided to prevent potential material deterioration over time. Chemical components (salt, etc.) contained in cement cause vomiting and efflorescence due to the climatic effect of the sea, and have a negative impact on both the appearance of the historical structure and the binding properties of the mortar in structural load carrying system. The subsequently applied cement-based plasters found on all wall, column, and vault surfaces in the interior were scraped off. Hydraulic lime injection was applied under low pressure to address minor cracks on the surfaces. For deeper cracks, reinforcement and repairs were conducted using a metal stitching method. Coarse and fine plaster were applied by using Horasan mortar [50], followed by painting the plastered surface with water-based white paint. As mentioned above in general terms, based on the data obtained from the physicochemical analyses conducted in this study, the current state of the historical Taşbaşı Church after restoration is shown in Figure 14. The restoration details cited above are thought to be studied in future studies.

5. Conclusions

In this study, the historical development of the Taşbaşı Church in Ordu and the stages it went through during its service life have been explained. Additionally, the architectural and decorative features inherent in each stage of the structure have been discussed. A chronological analysis of the structure has been conducted to enhance the understandability of the work. The information obtained from the physical and chemical analysis of the plaster and mortar samples of the historical church building has guided the restoration of the structure in terms of its quality [43].
  • The plaster and mortar samples from the historical Taşbaşı Church have been analyzed archaeometrically using various physicochemical methods, identified, classified, and documented in terms of materials. It has been determined that the plaster and mortar contain lime/clay mixed binders. In restoration applications, the same type and proportion of binders have been preferred to preserve the authenticity of the structure.
  • The plaster and mortar samples from the historical Taşbaşı Church have been examined petrographically through optical microscope analysis of thin sections. The aggregate/binder (aggregate composition in the region: limestone, basalt, andesite, dolomite) compositions of the examined plaster and mortar samples have been classified under a single group. It has been determined that the binder content of the plaster and mortar consists of a lime (85%)/clay (15%) mixture (Table 4 and Figure 12). The total matrix aggregate content determined through optical microscope analysis in the plaster and mortar is 65% (Table 4). It has been identified that brick fragments constitute a significant portion (approximately 38% of the total aggregate) of the aggregate content in the plaster and mortar samples (Table 4 and Figure 12).
  • The recommended lime mortars are composed of slaked and matured lime (natural) repair mortars. Such mortars exhibit superior strength properties for structures in the medium and long term. In repairs, the use of specially produced hydraulic lime is also possible for this purpose. Cement-containing materials should not be used at any stage of repair mortar composition. During the repair stage, it is recommended to conduct trial applications and observations to ensure compatibility of the proposed mortar content with the original material. Repair materials can be obtained from the quarries listed in Table 5.
  • In the repair process of plaster and joints of the historical Taşbaşı Church, the binder constituting 35% of the mixture consisted of 85% slaked–matured lime and 15% clay. The remaining 65% of the mixture consists of aggregates, with 65% being siliceous sand of suitable granulometry provided in Table 3, and 35% being brick fragments.
  • In the restoration practices carried out at the historical Taşbaşı Church, gypsum (due to its vulnerability to moisture)- or cement (containing high salt content)-based materials were not used at any stage of plaster and joint mortar composition. During the restoration process, it is essential to conduct trial applications (for one month) to determine whether the recommended plaster and joint mortar compositions are compatible with the original materials, and to monitor the results accordingly.
  • The plaster and joint mortar restoration materials used in the historical Taşbaşı Church were prepared at the construction site of the historical structure and protected from geographical (sea salt effects, early hardening effects etc.) and seasonal influences. Otherwise, there is a possibility of false setting (hardening of the prepared mortar and plaster mixture), which was prevented from occurring.
  • It is recommended that the lime used in the mortars intended for restoration application in the historical structure should be rested for at least one year in a pit dug in the area or at least one year of slaked lime. In mortar mixtures where lime is preferred as the binder, fresh water should be used, the mortar should be thoroughly kneaded and compressed, and partially hardened (beginning to harden) mortars should not be used.
  • Hydraulic mortars used in repair mortar, if produced during cold weather conditions, should be covered and dried. The applied repair mortar should be kept moist throughout the hardening time, and protected from sunlight, sudden and high temperature changes, wind, heavy rain, and frost effects until the mixture hardens completely, with the use of mesh, sacks, tarpaulins, etc.
  • Since the restoration area is in a region under the influence of the sea, binders with high resistance to seawater effects should be preferred in the mortar mixture. The surface of the structure should be covered in layers of cut stones or bricks with well-spaced and compacted joints to keep seawater from reaching to the mortar.
  • As the number of joints decreases, sturdy large materials should be preferred. Maximum care has been taken into consideration in the restoration of the historical Taşbaşı Church regarding these issues.
In conclusion, besides recognizing and preserving churches, which are historical and artistic treasures exhibiting various characteristics across different regions of Anatolia, it is crucial to enrich Anatolian culture by ensuring their recognition and preservation with design projects and applications faithful to the original construction and materials. These efforts shed light on the region’s cultural, architectural, and engineering history.

Author Contributions

Methodology, Z.K. and A.S.; formal analysis, A.S.; investigation, A.S.; data curation, Z.K., A.S. and E.T.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.K., A.S. and E.T.; writing—review and editing, Z.K. and E.T.; supervision, Z.K. and E.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

All the data related to this study can be provided upon request.

Acknowledgments

The historical Ordu Taşbaşı Church, which had been idle for many years, was allocated to the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Following this allocation, the restoration projects and technical reports were commissioned to Adnan SEÇKİN and Historian Hüseyin Avni BALOĞLU (Zile Aktif Architecture Engineering Construction Industry Ltd.) by The General Directorate of Cultural Heritage and Museums and Ordu Governorate Provincial Administration. The implementation tender and construction supervision were conducted by the Samsun Surveying and Monuments Directorate. In this study, the data were obtained from the Ph.D. Thesis of Ali Sarıalioğlu [43].

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Historical and post-restoration condition of Ordu Taşbaşı Church [37].
Figure 1. Historical and post-restoration condition of Ordu Taşbaşı Church [37].
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Figure 2. The location map of Taşbaşı Church in Altınordu District, Ordu Province (The red circle on the right shows the enlarged view of the red circle on the left on Turkey map) [38].
Figure 2. The location map of Taşbaşı Church in Altınordu District, Ordu Province (The red circle on the right shows the enlarged view of the red circle on the left on Turkey map) [38].
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Figure 3. (a) Ground floor plan of Taşbaşı Church; (b) Entrasol floor plan of Taşbaşı Church [39,40].
Figure 3. (a) Ground floor plan of Taşbaşı Church; (b) Entrasol floor plan of Taşbaşı Church [39,40].
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Figure 4. South facade entrance with a barrel vault door.
Figure 4. South facade entrance with a barrel vault door.
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Figure 5. Interior plan view of the church.
Figure 5. Interior plan view of the church.
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Figure 6. Interior floor plan view of the church.
Figure 6. Interior floor plan view of the church.
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Figure 7. Representation of the sampling areas for Ordu Taşbaşı Church on the plan.
Figure 7. Representation of the sampling areas for Ordu Taşbaşı Church on the plan.
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Figure 8. Regions of plaster and mortar samples.
Figure 8. Regions of plaster and mortar samples.
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Figure 9. Laboratory studies of plaster and joint mortar samples from Taşbaşı Church [41,42].
Figure 9. Laboratory studies of plaster and joint mortar samples from Taşbaşı Church [41,42].
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Figure 10. The plaster and joint mortar samples taken from Taşbaşı Church.
Figure 10. The plaster and joint mortar samples taken from Taşbaşı Church.
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Figure 11. The aggregates obtained through physicochemical analysis processing from Taşbaşı Church.
Figure 11. The aggregates obtained through physicochemical analysis processing from Taşbaşı Church.
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Figure 12. Optical microscope images of thin sections of plaster and joint mortar samples from Ordu Taşbaşı Church.
Figure 12. Optical microscope images of thin sections of plaster and joint mortar samples from Ordu Taşbaşı Church.
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Figure 13. Map showing the location of the material production areas for historical Taşbaşı Church (Scale 1:2,500,000) [49].
Figure 13. Map showing the location of the material production areas for historical Taşbaşı Church (Scale 1:2,500,000) [49].
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Figure 14. The current state of the restored historical Taşbaşı Church [37].
Figure 14. The current state of the restored historical Taşbaşı Church [37].
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Table 1. Structural material group of Ordu Taşbaşı Church.
Table 1. Structural material group of Ordu Taşbaşı Church.
Group CodeStructural Material GroupSample Number
OTK-SPlaster sample2
Table 2. Working samples related to Ordu Taşbaşı Church.
Table 2. Working samples related to Ordu Taşbaşı Church.
SamplesExplanationsMaterial Type
OTK-S1South body wallMortar and plaster
OTK-S2S2 column
Table 3. Aggregate/binder and granulometric analyses for plaster and joint mortar samples from Taşbaşı Church.
Table 3. Aggregate/binder and granulometric analyses for plaster and joint mortar samples from Taşbaşı Church.
SamplesTB (%) *TA (%) *<63 μm>63 μm>125 μm>250 μm>500 μm>1000 μm
OTK-S152.8547.153.498.2325.7325.0122.0015.53
OTK-S261.0338.973.506.2717.0018.9718.9635.30
Average56.9443.063.507.2521.3721.9920.4825.42
(*) TA = ratio of total aggregate. TB: ratio of total binder (by weight).
Table 4. Petrographic components of the plaster and joint mortar samples.
Table 4. Petrographic components of the plaster and joint mortar samples.
Mortar SamplesMTB ** (%)MTA * (%)Matrix Binder Content (100%)Matrix Aggregate Content (100%)
LimeClayCementGypsumRock & MineralsBF ****Org ****
OTK-S135658515--62 (Q, K, C, Ç, Pl, Py, By) ***38-
OTK-S2
* MTA: matrix total aggregate ratio. ** MTB: matrix total binder ratio. *** Q: quartz, C: calcite, Ç: chert, Pl: plagioclase, By: biotite. **** BF: brick fragments, Org: organic content.
Table 5. Quarries and production regions for materials for historical Taşbaşı Church.
Table 5. Quarries and production regions for materials for historical Taşbaşı Church.
NoMaterialSupply Area
1Sand-gravelMelet River
2Sand (for fine work)Melet River
3Raw sand-gravelMelet River
4CementÜnye Factory
5Plain reinforcementKarabük
6Deformed reinforcementKarabük
7BrickKavak
8BrickKavak
9Vertically perforated brickKavak
10TileErbaa
11Lightweight aggregateOrdu Soya
12Marble chipsHavza
13StonePerşembe Somuncu
14LimeOrdu Lime Kiln
15Ready-mixed concreteOrdu
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Sarıalioğlu, A.; Karaca, Z.; Türkeli, E. Physicochemical Analysis of Historical Ordu Taşbaşı Church Mortars and Recommendations for Restoration. Buildings 2024, 14, 2743. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092743

AMA Style

Sarıalioğlu A, Karaca Z, Türkeli E. Physicochemical Analysis of Historical Ordu Taşbaşı Church Mortars and Recommendations for Restoration. Buildings. 2024; 14(9):2743. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092743

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sarıalioğlu, Ali, Zeki Karaca, and Erdem Türkeli. 2024. "Physicochemical Analysis of Historical Ordu Taşbaşı Church Mortars and Recommendations for Restoration" Buildings 14, no. 9: 2743. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092743

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