Long-Term Performance of Mortars with Combined Incorporation of Ladle Furnace Slag and Metakaolin
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods: Description and Analysis
2.1. Characterization of the Materials
2.2. Analysis of the Mortars
Test | No. of Specimens | Dimension (*) | Standard | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fresh state | Consistence | NBR 13276 [40] | ||
Water retention | NBR 13277 [43] | |||
Entrained air content | NBR 13278 [44] | |||
Density | NBR 13278 [44] | |||
Hardened State | Flexural strength (Fs) | 3 | 40 × 40 × 160 | NBR 13279 [45] |
Compressive strength (Cs) | 3 | 40 × 40 × 160 | NBR 13279 [45] | |
Apparent density | 3 | 40 × 40 × 160 | NBR 13280 [46] | |
Water absorption by capillarity | 3 | 40 × 40 × 160 | NBR 15259 [47] | |
Dynamic modulus of elasticity | 3 | 40 × 40 × 160 | NBR 15630 [48] | |
Volumetric stability | 3 | 25 × 25 × 285 | NBR 15261 [49] |
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Performance Properties of Mortars in the Fresh State
3.2. Mechanical Properties of Mortars
3.3. Performance Properties of Mortars in the Hardened State
3.4. Correlation between Mechanical Properties and Capillarity Coefficient of Mortars
3.5. Microstructural and Mechanical Behavior Correlations
4. Conclusions
- Comparing the mechanical properties of the mortars with respect to curing time, it is evident that the extended curing period (180 days) significantly influenced the mixtures containing LFS (OPC + LFS and OPC + LFS + MK). After 180 days, the compressive strength of the OPC + LFS + MK mixture showed a substantial 44% increase. Additionally, the longer curing time had a greater impact on the compressive strength and dynamic modulus of elasticity (Ed) than on the flexural strength, suggesting that MK was more effective in improving the microstructure rather than the mechanical behavior of the mortars. Prolonged curing is essential for the full development of belite hydration (LFS) and pozzolanic reactions (MK), which are key to realizing the enhanced properties of OPC + LFS + MK blends.
- Analysis of the chemical compounds in the mortar samples using X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed that the extended curing time (180 days) resulted in a substantial reduction in Ca(OH)2 and the formation of anorthite. This reduction is attributed to the consumption of Ca(OH)2 by pozzolanic reactions, which also leads to the formation of C-S-H (calcium silicate hydrate) compounds.
- Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images confirmed the XRD findings, showing a significant reduction in the porosity of the mortars when comparing 28 and 180 days of curing. This effect was most pronounced in the OPC + LFS and OPC + LFS + MK mortars. The improved microstructure is due to the filler effect and the formation of additional chemical compounds (C-S-H and C-A-S-H) from the combined presence of LFS and MK, as evidenced by the increased encapsulation of sand grains by the cement paste. This behavior is also indicated by the lower capillarity coefficients and higher stiffness (>Ed) at 180 days. The filling effect provided by both LFS and MK contributes to better microstructural stability.
- The combined effect of the OPC + LFS + MK blend not only enhances the mechanical properties and microstructure of the mortars after 180 days of curing but also reduces OPC consumption by 42% compared to the reference mixture. This reduction leads to significant cost savings, as cement is a major expense in construction. Environmentally, using MK and LFS reduces the demand for OPC, thus lowering the carbon footprint and supporting circular economy principles. By incorporating industrial by-products and reducing waste, this approach promotes more sustainable and efficient resource use in construction.
- For future studies, it is recommended to explore the effects of combining LFS with other pozzolans and to conduct durability analyses. Additionally, evaluating the environmental and economic parameters of using LFS as a supplementary cementitious material in mortars should be considered.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Contents (wt.%) * | CaO | Fe2O3 | SiO2 | MgO | MnO | Al2O3 | SO3 | LOI (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LFS | 54.60 | 7.59 | 9.78 | 5.79 | 7.29 | 0.80 | 0.60 | 12.00 |
OPC | 63.40 | 3.86 | 12.40 | 2.83 | 0.19 | 2.52 | 2.76 | 10.80 |
MK | 0.13 | 3.43 | 50.80 | 0.70 | - | 35.90 | 0.40 | 3.36 |
Mixtures (*) | Indexes | Binder (kg/m3) | Sand (kg/m3) | w/b Ratio | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OPC | LFS | MK | ||||
REF | 1:3 | 477.23 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1431.69 | 0.63 |
OPC + MK | 0.9:0.1:3 | 420.15 | 0.00 | 46.68 | 1400.52 | 0.67 |
OPC + LFS | 0.7:0.3:3 | 331.05 | 141.88 | 0.00 | 1418.79 | 0.64 |
OPC + LFS + MK | 0.6:0.3:0.1:3 | 277.63 | 138.81 | 46.27 | 1388.13 | 0.68 |
Mixtures | Density (kg/m3) | Entrained Air Content (%) | Water Retention (%) |
---|---|---|---|
REF | 2153 | 3 | 83 |
OPC + MK | 2106 | 3 | 82 |
OPC + LFS | 2083 | 5 | 82 |
OPC + LFS + MK | 2097 | 3 | 84 |
Mixtures | Flexural Strength (MPa) | SD 1 | CV 2 | HG 3 | Compressive Strength (MPa) | SD 1 | CV 2 | HG 3 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
At 28 days | ||||||||
REF | 4.70 | 0.11 | 2.30 | A | 25.50 | 1.07 | 4.21 | A |
OPC + MK | 3.40 | 0.32 | 9.51 | B | 25.30 | 1.29 | 5.09 | A |
OPC + LFS | 3.50 | 0.13 | 3.70 | B | 9.40 | 1.26 | 13.39 | E |
OPC + LFS + MK | 3.80 | 0.25 | 6.49 | C | 10.80 | 1.66 | 15.41 | B |
At 180 days | ||||||||
REF | 5.56 | 0.51 | 9.21 | D | 24.08 | 0.52 | 2.18 | C |
OPC + MK | 5.25 | 0.73 | 13.82 | D | 25.69 | 0.50 | 1.95 | D |
OPC + LFS | 4.31 | 0.06 | 1.28 | E | 14.92 | 0.73 | 4.91 | E |
OPC + LFS + MK | 4.36 | 0.24 | 5.54 | E | 15.64 | 1.11 | 7.06 | E |
Mixtures | Ed (GPa) | SD 1 | CV 2 | HG 3 | Density (kg/m3) 2 | SD | CV | HG | C (g/dm2·min1/2) | SD 1 | CV 2 | HG 3 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
At 28 days | ||||||||||||
REF | 25.68 | 0.07 | 0.27 | A | 2081 | 2.05 | 0.10 | A | 0.88 | 0.07 | 8.34 | AB |
OPC + MK | 25.11 | 1.04 | 4.13 | A | 2084 | 10.45 | 0.50 | A | 0.72 | 0.14 | 19.57 | A |
OPC + LFS | 16.72 | 0.29 | 1.71 | B | 2031 | 6.89 | 0.34 | B | 1.02 | 0.09 | 8.81 | B |
OPC + LFS + MK | 19.55 | 0.17 | 0.85 | B | 2053 | 10.73 | 0.52 | B | 0.93 | 0.09 | 9.11 | B |
At 180 days | ||||||||||||
REF | 25.60 | 0.07 | 0.27 | C | 2082 | 1.10 | 0.05 | CE | 0.45 | 0.02 | 4.44 | C |
OPC + MK | 25.40 | 0.42 | 1.66 | C | 2096 | 8.92 | 0.43 | C | 0.40 | 0.03 | 7.50 | C |
OPC + LFS | 21.63 | 0.23 | 1.07 | D | 2062 | 10.24 | 0.50 | D | 0.46 | 0.05 | 9.87 | C |
OPC + LFS + MK | 23.02 | 0.12 | 0.50 | E | 2067 | 4.09 | 0.20 | DE | 0.21 | 0.05 | 23.81 | D |
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Silva, T.; Souza, E.; Mariano, E.; Ferreira, G.; Osório, W.R. Long-Term Performance of Mortars with Combined Incorporation of Ladle Furnace Slag and Metakaolin. Buildings 2024, 14, 2762. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092762
Silva T, Souza E, Mariano E, Ferreira G, Osório WR. Long-Term Performance of Mortars with Combined Incorporation of Ladle Furnace Slag and Metakaolin. Buildings. 2024; 14(9):2762. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092762
Chicago/Turabian StyleSilva, Tayná, Everton Souza, Eduardo Mariano, Gisleiva Ferreira, and Wislei R. Osório. 2024. "Long-Term Performance of Mortars with Combined Incorporation of Ladle Furnace Slag and Metakaolin" Buildings 14, no. 9: 2762. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092762