Impact of Wooden Stadium Design on Spectators’ Perception and Satisfaction: A Multidimensional Analysis of Audience Experience

Abstract

In modern stadium design, wood materials have received increasing attention due to their affinity with nature. Based on the pro-nature design hypothesis, this study explores how wood stadium design perception affects spectators’ spectator satisfaction through biophilicity, and analyzes its mechanism of action in the four dimensions of visual, olfactory, tactile, and perceptual wood design perception. By analyzing 641 samples, structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to explore the effects of wood design perception on multiple sensory dimensions. The findings suggest that (1) four-dimensional wood design perceptions positively affect stadium spectator satisfaction, and (2) biophilic affinity plays a mediating role in four-dimensional wood design perceptions affecting stadium spectator satisfaction. This study enriches the theoretical framework of the pro-natural design hypothesis, provides insights into the potential of wooden stadium design to enhance spectator experience, and provides new empirical evidence for the field of architectural and environmental psychology. By revealing the emotional role played by biophilicity in multi-sensory dimensions, it has important practical guidance for enhancing spectator satisfaction, optimizing spatial experience design, and promoting the integration of architectural design with the natural environment in sports stadiums, which has broad social and cultural value.

1. Introduction

In recent years, the Biophilia Hypothesis and Biophilic Design have stirred up a wide range of discussions in the fields of ecology and design [1,2]. The pro-nature hypothesis, proposed by biologist Edward O. Wilson, suggests that humans have an innate tendency to develop an emotional connection with the natural environment, a desire that stems from our evolutionary history [3]. Pro-natural design, on the other hand, is a specific application of this theory in architecture and urban planning, advocating for the integration of natural elements into living spaces to promote physical and mental health and enhance residents’ life satisfaction [4]. The presentation of these ideas responds to the reality of mankind’s gradual estrangement from nature in modern society, reminding us of how to rediscover a close connection with nature in the midst of rapid technological development. As society modernizes, technology and urbanization accelerate the sense of isolation between humans and nature, bringing about a series of psychological and physiological problems [5]. People’s desire for nature is no longer just an esthetic need but also a pursuit of health, happiness, and inner balance. In discussing spectator satisfaction, several related terms are frequently used, including overall comfort, psychological comfort, and emotional engagement. To clarify these terms: (1) overall comfort refers to the physical ease and relaxation experienced by spectators, influenced by environmental factors such as temperature, lighting, and spatial design; (2) psychological comfort is the mental state of spectators, which involves reduced stress and anxiety, and an enhanced sense of well-being; (3) emotional engagement refers to the emotional connection spectators feel with the environment, where design features like natural elements evoke positive emotional responses such as peace and contentment. These concepts are often interlinked and contribute collectively to spectator satisfaction, which is an essential aspect of evaluating the success of pro-natural design in sports venues.

The pro-nature hypothesis and pro-nature design respond to this need of the times, allowing us to re-establish our connection with nature and regain balance and tranquility in our fast-paced lives. In the design of public space, while pursuing the functionality and convenience of the space, people also hope to evoke inner peace and pleasure through design [6].

In the field of sports buildings, pro-natural design looks even hotter [7]. As a place for people to engage in physical activities, health promotion, and social interaction, sports buildings need to fulfill functional needs and also focus on the emotional experience of everyone [8]. Through the introduction of natural light, greenery, and water features, the design aims to create an energizing and anxiety-reducing environment where nature becomes one with the space during exercise, inspiring physical vitality and peace of mind [9]. The architectural goal of modern sports buildings is no longer a closed hard space, but the gradual integration of natural elements to enhance the esthetic feeling and comfort of the building. For example, some stadiums have begun to use large glass curtain walls to allow natural light to reach the interior of the building, creating a bright and spacious atmosphere [10]. Some stadiums are beginning to use designs such as green roofs and vertical gardens to enhance environmental sustainability and comfort [11]. In addition, the designers skillfully integrate the building with the natural landscape through organic curves and natural materials, etc., so that people can subconsciously feel the freshness and tranquility of nature during sports. The practice of pro-nature design concepts has subtly changed the function of the sports building and redefined its meaning—not only as a place for sports, but also as a space for relaxation and energy recovery [12].

In the practice of pro-natural design, the use of wooden elements has received much attention [13]. As a natural building material, wood has a unique texture and warm tones that can bring comfort and naturalness to a space [14]. For example, in one study, wooden walls were found to maintain a high level of temperature and humidity comfort compared to the raw coldness of concrete walls, while concrete walls are more likely to conduct cold outside temperatures into the room, affecting the user’s perception of comfort [15]. Another study analyzing user perceptions of buildings constructed with lightweight steel frames (LSFs) found that despite the flexibility and cost-effectiveness of LSF structures, there were differences in user perceptions of their comfort and environmental adaptability. It can be seen that reinforced concrete buildings have a colder feel compared to wooden buildings [16]. In wooden stadiums, wooden floors and bleachers provide athletes and spectators with a good sense of touch and comfort but also reduce joint stress and improve athletic performance; wooden beams and roof structures support the stability of the building, but also add warmth to the space and visual effects, breaking the coldness and hardness common in modern buildings [17]. At the same time, the introduction of timber enhances the connection between the building and nature, so that the sports building provides functional support while allowing users to feel the peace of mind and sense of belonging that nature brings. With the rise in environmental awareness, wood is favored by architects at home and abroad as a low-carbon, renewable material [18]. It absorbs a large amount of carbon dioxide during the growth process, which can effectively reduce the carbon footprint of the building, reflecting the practice of environmental protection concepts in architectural design. In the context of the global push for green building and sustainable development, wood elements have become an important trend in sports architectural design, which not only enhances the comfort of the space, but also contributes ecological benefits to the environment [19].

In modern society, there have been a number of repaired wooden sports venues. For example, the Ariake Gymnastics Arena in Tokyo Bay, known as the “Harbor Wooden Boat”, was one of the venues for the Tokyo Olympics, and hosted both the Olympic gymnastics competition and the Paralympic boccia competition. Its most distinctive feature is the extensive use of wood, which responds to the Tokyo 2020 qualification document’s requirements for “wood-based facilities” and “sustainability”, and also carries the historical memory of the site’s use as a “wood storage facility”. It also carries the historical memory of the site as a “timber storage yard” [20]. The “Harbor Wooden Boat” design concept is carried throughout the pavilion, where wood is used in all possible parts of the structure, including the large-span vaulted wooden roof, the large wooden room façade, and the removable wooden spectator seating. The ceiling of the pavilion is constructed with exposed wood framing to reduce its own weight, while a large outdoor gallery supported by inverted V-shaped columns around the perimeter serves as a spectator staging center. The wooden façade not only has an esthetic effect, but also provides effective sound and thermal insulation. The overall compact design and the perfect integration of function, structure, and space reflect the simple beauty of traditional Japanese wooden structures, and have been well-received both at home and abroad [21].

Although the application of wood design in sports architecture has gradually increased in recent years, and many scholars and designers have paid attention to its advantages in esthetics, sustainability, and functionality, there is still a relative lack of research on how wood design perception affects spectator satisfaction in sports venues. Most of the existing literature focuses on the structural function, sustainability, and physical advantages of wood in sports architecture, with little in-depth exploration of how wood elements can enhance the overall experience of spectators through the influence of the perceptual dimension, neglecting the comprehensive role of wood design perception in the multi-sensory dimension [22,23]. In this context, how wood design perception can enhance spectators’ satisfaction with stadium spectators through the mediating effect of biophilic affinity in the pro-natural design hypothesis has become a research gap that needs to be filled. Based on this, this paper analyzes the effect of multidimensional sensory experience on spectator satisfaction based on structural equation modeling, aiming to fill the gap of existing research on how wood design perception enhances spectator satisfaction through visual, tactile, olfactory, and other sensory dimensions in stadiums, and to further enrich the theoretical system of the pro-natural design hypothesis, so as to provide architects with an opportunity to consider the effects of ecology, functionality, and user experience in the design of stadiums in the future. It provides guidance for architects to consider the integration of ecology, functionality, and user experience in the design of future stadiums, and promotes innovative practices in the field of construction.

2. Literature Review and Research Hypothesis

The design perception of wooden sports venues refers to the audience’s overall feeling and evaluation of wooden design elements in sports venues. In the framework of this paper, wood design perception includes the visual esthetics and tactile experience of wood materials in the stadium, as well as the warmth and naturalness brought by the overall environment. Wood often provides a higher level of intimacy and comfort than other building materials, which can significantly impact the overall spectator experience [24]. Wooden materials offer a higher degree of intimacy and naturalness than traditional metal and concrete. Spectators will feel visual warmth and tactile comfort in a wooden stadium, properties that help reduce fatigue during the game for spectators and enhance the overall comfort experience. Wood also provides psychological pleasure and relaxation by creating a pleasant atmosphere, and this psychological comfort is essential for spectators’ emotional engagement and enjoyment of the event. These positive effects increase the physical and psychological comfort of spectators, as well as their well-being and engagement in the event, ultimately significantly increasing spectator satisfaction. This design perception makes it more likely that patrons will choose the venue again and attract more patrons through word-of-mouth.

Stadium spectator satisfaction, i.e., the audience’s subjective evaluation of the overall experience during the spectator of the event. Satisfaction covers the audience’s comprehensive feelings about the quality of the game, seat comfort, facility convenience, environmental atmosphere, etc. These experiences have a significant impact on the audience’s future choice of the stadium and its word-of-mouth spread. These experiences have a significant impact on whether spectators choose the stadium again in the future and their word-of-mouth, and are key indicators of the success of stadium design and operation [25]. The importance of the perceived design of wooden stadiums to enhance spectator satisfaction is supported by several studies. Douglas discusses the overall design of Reebok Stadium and its impact on the spectator experience, noting that there is a significant positive correlation between spectators’ perceptions of design and their satisfaction. This research suggests that well-designed stadiums are effective in improving spectator comfort and overall experience [26]. Heerden mentioned that the design of stadiums encompasses not only architectural esthetics and functionality but also a wide range of factors, including seating comfort, facility esthetics, and accessibility. This suggests that the overall design perception of a stadium is highly correlated with spectator satisfaction. It is also mentioned that some controllable factors in the design are crucial for improving spectator experience and satisfaction, and that wood design materials can effectively improve satisfaction due to their natural visual and tactile properties [27]. Given these findings, this study proposes the following hypotheses to further explore the relationship between wood stadium design and spectator satisfaction:

H1: 

Perceived positive effect of wood stadium design on sports stadium spectator satisfaction.

One key factor influencing spectator satisfaction is visual perceived value, which refers to the audience’s subjective feeling and evaluation of the venue’s visual presentation when watching sports events. Visual perceived value covers visual elements such as color matching, light treatment, space layout, etc., in the venue design, as well as the esthetic appeal of the overall environment of the venue. These visual factors can directly affect the audience’s visual comfort and pleasure during the event, which is an important aspect of enhancing the spectator experience [28]. Visual perception is the first feeling of the spectator’s spectator experience, and visual pleasure can significantly improve the spectator’s mood and engagement during the spectator process. Color coordination, lighting design, and the overall esthetic feeling of the stadium will affect the audience’s psychological state, making them feel more comfortable and happy during the event, thus increasing their overall satisfaction with the stadium. This visual experience not only affects the current spectator experience but also influences the spectator’s willingness to attend future events and the venue’s word-of-mouth. SAMOSIR mentioned that visual comfort is an important part of the spectator experience. A good visual experience, such as appropriate lighting, color scheme, and seating visibility, can significantly improve the overall satisfaction of the spectators. Especially in terms of light design, appropriate lighting, and color application can effectively enhance the visual attractiveness and comfort of the stadium, thus improving the spectator’s spectator experience [29]. Dhurup’s study on a soccer stadium in South Africa pointed out that the visual presentation of the stadium, especially the sense of space, the esthetics of the facilities, and the visual attractiveness of the overall environment, had a significant positive impact on the spectator’s satisfaction of watching the game. A visually pleasing experience not only enhances the spectators’ enjoyment of the event, but also makes them more inclined to choose the venue again to watch the match. Visual perception, as a direct environmental stimulus, through color, light, and spatial design, can influence spectators’ psychological state and thus improve their overall spectator experience [30]. Building upon the established link between visual esthetics and spectator satisfaction, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

H1a: 

Visual perceived value positively influences spectator satisfaction in sports stadiums.

Beyond visual appeal, another crucial aspect is perceived natural connection, which refers to the connection with nature that the spectator or user feels immediately upon entering a wooden sports stadium. The design of the wooden sports stadium itself tends to create an atmosphere of harmony and symbiosis with nature, and this design concept can effectively enhance the audience’s emotional connection. When spectators enter a venue that incorporates natural elements, they tend to have an emotional experience of being one with nature. When spectators watch a game in a more natural environment, they usually feel more relaxed and happy, thus enhancing their overall spectator satisfaction. Also, a series of studies have shown that the likelihood of people using commercial fitness centers is higher when they are in a natural space, as shown by Hou et al. in the context of green building design [31]. Since perceived natural connection fosters a deeper sense of immersion and emotional attachment, the following hypotheses are proposed to examine its role in spectator satisfaction:

H1b: 

Perceived natural connection positively influences sports stadium spectator satisfaction.

In addition to visual and natural elements, olfactory comfort also plays a role in shaping the spectator experience. Perceived olfactory comfort refers to the spectator’s perception and evaluation of the odor environment in a sports stadium. Perceived olfactory comfort encompasses the presence of pleasant aroma or fresh air in the stadium, avoiding the negative impact of pungent odors or bad smells on the spectators’ experience. A good olfactory environment enhances spectators’ comfort and experience, thus increasing their overall satisfaction with the sports stadium. A good olfactory environment can make spectators feel relaxed and happy during the spectator process, thus enhancing the overall spectator experience [32]. Smell environments in sports stadiums, such as fresh air, appropriate scenting arrangements, and avoidance of unpleasant odors, can create a more comfortable atmosphere for spectators. This olfactory comfort not only reduces environmental stress, but also enhances spectator satisfaction by boosting their emotional state through positive sensory stimulation. Sergio studied the impact of the olfactory environment in stadiums on spectator experience, and the results showed that a good olfactory environment can significantly increase overall spectator satisfaction. The air quality of the sports stadium and the aromas added to the environment affect the psychological state of the spectators. Good air circulation and fresh odors can create a more relaxing and enjoyable atmosphere for spectators [33]. Vandenbergue further explored the importance of olfaction in the sports stadium environment. The olfactory environment can have a significant impact on the emotional state of spectators. Through proper air quality management and scenting, stadiums can effectively reduce the negative emotions of spectators during events and increase their sense of positive experience. Spectators in a pleasant olfactory environment will be more inclined to participate in the atmosphere of the event, which will, in turn, increase overall spectator satisfaction [34]. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:

H1c: 

Perceived olfactory comfort positively influences spectator satisfaction in sports stadiums.

Another sensory factor influencing spectator experience is natural material tactility, which refers to the contact feeling and subjective evaluation of natural materials by spectators in a sports stadium. Natural material Tactility usually provides a warmer and softer touch, more affinity and comfort than other materials. Natural material Tactility involves not only physical comfort, but also psychological relaxation and pleasure, making spectators feel closer to nature when interacting with the stadium environment [35]. Natural material Tactility, such as wood, can provide a more comfortable experience due to its warmth and softness, which is especially important when prolonged contact with the facility is required. Natural materials provide a softer touch than cold, hard metals or plastics, resulting in a higher level of comfort for spectators during the event. The natural material tactility also creates a warm and welcoming atmosphere in the arena, making spectators more mentally relaxed. The intimacy and naturalness of this environment helps spectators to better integrate into the atmosphere of the event, increasing their emotional engagement and thus improving their overall spectator satisfaction with the experience. The comfort and pleasure that spectators derive from natural materials make them more inclined to choose the venue again and to have a higher opinion of the facilities and design of the venue. Regarding the effect of natural material Tactility on spectator satisfaction, Yılmaz studied the effect of different building materials on user perception. The study showed that participants generally reported higher levels of comfort and intimacy when natural materials were used as the primary construction material. Compared to steel or concrete, wood gives a warmer and more intimate feeling to nature, and this tactile sensation has a direct impact on the user’s satisfaction with the spatial environment [36]. Samaran explores the use of green building materials in the design of sports stadiums, where the use of natural materials not only contributes to environmental sustainability, but also significantly enhances the user experience. Spectators experience a more comfortable and natural atmosphere during their contact with natural materials, and all these factors positively affect their overall spectator satisfaction [37]. Boogaard discusses the feasibility of using wood materials in stadiums, pointing out the advantages of wood seating in providing comfort. He showed that wood materials are effective in reducing the physical discomfort of spectators during prolonged spectator due to their good support and tactile properties, which in turn significantly improves the spectator experience [38]. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:

H1d: 

Natural Material Tactility Positively Influences Spectator Satisfaction in Sports stadiums.

Biophilic affinity refers to the positive emotional and psychological feelings that viewers experience during their contact with natural elements. Biophilic affinity stems from the natural preference of human beings for natural environments, and through the use of wood design and natural materials in venues, viewers can experience a more relaxed, pleasurable, and energized feeling. The visual and tactile warmth brought by wood materials, as well as the exposure to natural landscapes, can contribute to the spectators’ emotional state in a more positive and relaxed direction. This experience help spectators to better integrate into the event atmosphere and enhances their sense of engagement and fulfillment during the spectator process [39]. It further increases spectator satisfaction by increasing their overall affinity with the venue and their sense of nature. Wooden design enhances spectators’ affinity for the environment through its natural and warm attributes, and this affinity increases their biophilic affinity by increasing the emotional connection between spectators and natural elements. Biophilic affinity enables spectators to gain more psychological comfort and emotional engagement, which further enhances their spectator satisfaction. Wooden design enhances biophilic affinity by enabling spectators to experience higher levels of psychological enjoyment and engagement during the event, which is ultimately reflected in a significant increase in spectator satisfaction. Frolova’s case study of the ZHA-designed wooden stadiums in the South West of England demonstrated that sports stadiums with a high proportion of wood materials can have significant biophilic affinity effects. Spectators generally felt a stronger connection to nature and a sense of warmth in wooden stadiums, which in turn led to higher levels of spectator satisfaction in the spectator experience. Wooden materials not only offer functional benefits, but also enhance the emotional state of spectators on a psychological level [40]. Lee explores the role of biophilic affinity in sports stadium environments, where spectator biophilic affinity can be significantly enhanced through the introduction of natural elements, such as timber, vegetation, and natural light, into the design. Biophilic affinity enables spectators to achieve higher levels of engagement and psychological comfort during the event, and these feelings further enhance overall spectator satisfaction [41]. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper.

H2: 

Biophilic affinity mediates the relationship between the perceived influence of wood stadium design on sports stadium spectator satisfaction.

Natural elements in visual perception can enhance viewers’ biophilic affinity, enabling them to achieve higher levels of emotional comfort and psychological pleasure during the spectator process. When spectators are visually attracted to natural elements, the resulting feelings of biophilic affinity will make them feel more relaxed and engaged during the event, which in turn significantly increases their overall spectator satisfaction with the spectator experience. Visual perceived value enhances spectator satisfaction by enhancing biophilic affinity, resulting in increased psychological pleasure and engagement during the event. Dalay explored the effects of biophilic design on visual perception and behavior, and the results showed that visually appealing natural elements significantly enhanced people’s biophilic responses. The reasonable green arrangement, the use of natural light, and the visual presentation of wooden elements in venues can effectively enhance spectators’ psychological comfort and pleasure, thus increasing overall spectator satisfaction [42]. James emphasized the impact of the use of natural lawns and other green plants in venues on spectator biophilic affinity. Through the visualization of green spaces, spectators felt a stronger connection to nature and, in turn, experienced a higher sense of engagement and psychological pleasure during the event. These visual elements provide positive emotional stimuli to spectators and significantly increase spectator satisfaction [43]. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:

H2a: 

Biophilic affinity mediates the relationship between visual perceived value affecting spectator satisfaction in sports stadiums.

In a wooden sports stadium, the spectator first perceives a connection to the natural environment. This perception comes from the natural visual effects of the wooden structure. The combination of the warm tones and natural grain of the wood, the natural light entering through the large windows, and the possible presence of indoor greenery directly enhances the spectator’s perception of nature. Compared to traditional cold and hard metal or concrete materials, the visual comfort brought by wood is more relaxing. The experience of this sense of nature is more than just a visible appearance; it subconsciously stimulates the viewer’s emotional resonance with nature, making them feel close and comfortable. The perception of a kind of closeness to nature will stimulate the biophilic affinity response. Biophilic affinity is a natural human preference and sense of connection to the natural environment, based on a long evolutionary connection to nature, humans are born with a stronger emotional connection to natural elements. Audiences’ biophilic affinity is triggered when they perceive wooden structures, natural light, and natural scents. This response directly affects the viewer’s mood, making them feel more relaxed, pleasant, and comfortable. In fact, research has also shown that biophilic affinity significantly reduces feelings of anxiety and stress, and enhances psychological comfort. Spectators are more likely to enjoy the game in this type of environment due to the sense of relaxation brought about by the natural elements.

When spectators are in this state of elevated and comfortable mood, spectator satisfaction is naturally enhanced. A relaxed state of mind will allow them to focus more on the game itself, enjoying it and improving their overall opinion of the arena and the game. The emotional relief that wooden venues bring through biophilic affinity allows spectators to not just watch the game, but to experience the game in a natural and comfortable environment, an environment that positively contributes to the spectator’s mood and experience. Thus, perceived natural connection indirectly improves the emotional and psychological state of spectators by stimulating biophilic affinity, which in turn enhances their spectator satisfaction. Meanwhile, Hassani explores the use of sustainable materials in the design of sports stadiums, where the use of natural materials can significantly enhance user comfort and biophilic affinity. Wooden seats have advantages in terms of material softness and warmth, and these properties make it easier for spectators to feel good and emotionally connected to the stadium during the game, which in turn increases spectator satisfaction [44,45]. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:

H2b: 

Biophilic affinity mediates the relationship between the perceived natural connection affecting spectator satisfaction at sports stadiums.

Natural odors or appropriate scenting arrangements in the arena can enhance the spectator’s olfactory comfort, making them feel a close connection with the natural environment, which in turn enhances biophilic affinity. This biophilic affinity brings about a positive emotional response that makes spectators more relaxed and happy during the spectator process, thus increasing overall spectator satisfaction. By increasing biophilic affinity, olfactory comfort further enhances spectators’ psychological pleasure and emotional engagement, making their spectator experience more positive and satisfying. Yang studied the effect of olfactory environments on people’s perceptions of sports stadiums, and pointed out that good olfactory comfort can significantly increase spectators’ biophilic affinity. These natural odors not only make spectators feel more relaxed, but also enhance their emotional connection with the environment, thus increasing overall spectator satisfaction [46]. Madrigal emphasized the role of olfactory experience in enhancing emotional engagement, and said that good olfactory environments can enhance spectators’ emotional responses and psychological states. Spectators are more likely to feel good about the venue and increase their sense of engagement and enjoyment of the event when they are in a fresh and pleasant-smelling environment, and these factors directly influence their overall spectator satisfaction with the spectator experience [47]. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper.

H2c: 

Biophilic affinity mediates the relationship between the perceived olfactory comfort and spectator satisfaction in sports stadiums.

Natural material Tactility, due to its unique softness and warmth, enables spectators to have an emotional experience closely linked to the natural environment, thus enhancing biophilic affinity. Biophilic affinity enables spectators to gain more psychological comfort and emotional engagement during the event, enhancing their goodwill towards the venue and their enjoyment of watching the event. Natural material Tactility enhances overall spectator satisfaction by increasing biophilic affinity, and Lulli discusses the impact of a mix of natural and man-made materials on the stadium environment, with the use of natural materials significantly increasing spectator biophilic affinity. The study noted that the use of natural elements, such as wood and stone, allowed spectators to feel more warmth and comfort during the game, which increased their psychological comfort and emotional connection [48]. Foroughi further validated the impact of natural material Tactility on biophilic affinity and its effect on spectator satisfaction. It was found that the soft touch of natural material tactility enhances spectators’ emotional engagement with the arena and makes them feel stronger psychological comfort, thus significantly increasing their overall spectator experience and satisfaction [49]. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper (see Figure 1 for a diagram of the proposed model in this paper);

H2d: 

Biophilic Affinity Mediates the Relationship Between Natural Material Tactility and Spectator Satisfaction in Sports Stadiums

3. Study Design

3.1. Questionnaire Methodology

This study followed the method of conducting offline research. The formal survey began on 26 October 2024 and ended on 4 January 2025. The questionnaire was distributed in the form of an on-site introduction and explanation, and was first distributed to consumers who watched sports before and after the game in a wooden sports venue. After filling out the informed consent form and the complete questionnaire, they could receive a small gift. In the preliminary stage of this study, 750 questionnaires were distributed, and 699 were returned. After excluding questionnaires with incomplete information and obvious logical errors, a total of 641 valid questionnaires were returned for an effective response rate of 92.70%. The sample size is relatively balanced and the basic information is shown in

Table 1. Descriptive analysis of basic information.

Variant	Categorization	N	Percentage (%)
Gender	Male	372	58.0
	Female	269	42.0
Marital status	Unmarried	198	30.9
	Married	443	69.1
Education	Junior college and below	498	77.7
	Junior college or above	143	22.3
Annual income	50,000 yuan and below	397	61.9
	50,000–90,000 yuan	167	26.1
	90,000 yuan and above	77	12.0
Account type	Municipalities	282	44.0
	Suburbia	217	33.9
	Countryside	142	22.2

.

3.2. Measurement of Variables

In this study, a 5-point Likert scale was used, with 1 indicating “strongly disagree” and 5 indicating “strongly agree”, and all measurement tools were Chineseized using the “translate-back-translate” method. All measurement instruments were Chineseized using the method of “translation-back-translation”. This study synthesizes the multifaceted connotations and measurement dimensions related to the factors influencing the satisfaction of sports stadium consumption. In this paper, the measurement of sports stadium spectator satisfaction is based on the mature scales of Yoon et al. [50], Truong et al. [51], and Biscaia et al. [52]. The corresponding terminology modification is also based on these scales, and based on this, the element of a wooden sports stadium is added, and the questionnaire with seven scales is finally designed. For example, “I was pleased with the decision to watch the event live at the Wooden Stadium”. Meanwhile, this paper refers to Haase, J., and Wiedmann, K., for the visual, tactile, and olfactory measurements of the perception of wood design, and Wiedmann, K. P’s The sensory perception item (SPI) set [53]. For perceived natural connection, we refer to Perrin and Benassi’s The Connectedness to Nature Scale [54]. For measures of biophilic affinity, we refer to Hung and Chang’s Perceived Biophilic Affinity Scale (PBAS) [55] and the Biophilic Attitudes Inventory (BAI), which were developed by Letourneau. The Attitudes Inventory (BAI) was developed by Letourneau. The Cronbach’s alpha values for APV (0.819), PNC (0.770), POC (0.761), NMT (0.778), BA (0.897), and SSS (0.933), as well as the overall scale’s Cronbach’s α value of 0.898, are all above 0.7. This indicates that the reliability of the questionnaire dimensions is good, and the questionnaire has sufficient internal consistency. The questionnaire was also reviewed by five experts with more than 15 years of experience in sports stadium operations and two experts with the title of professor in architecture.

4. Data Analysis

4.1. Common Methodological Biases

In this study, the Harman one-way test was used to test for common method bias. The results showed that there were six factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, with a total explained variance of 72.833%, and the first principal factor explained 14.638% of the variance, which is less than the critical criterion of 40%. Therefore, there is no serious common method bias problem in this study.

4.2. Exploratory Factor Analysis

Exploratory factor analysis using SPSS 23.0 was used to conduct KMO and EArtlett’s spherical test on the scale, and the results indicated that KMO = 0.905 > 0.7 and EArtlett’s spherical test value was significant (Sig. < 0.001), indicating that the questionnaire data meets the prerequisite requirements for factor analysis. Therefore, further analysis was carried out, and the principal component analysis method was used for factor extraction and the common factor was extracted with the Eigenroot greater than 1 as the factor, and the factor analysis was carried out with the variance-maximizing orthogonal rotation when the factor was rotated. The results of the analysis, as shown in

Table 2. KMO analysis table.

KMO and EArtlett’s Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy.		0.905
EArtlett’s Test of Sphericity	Approx. Chi-Square	7089.137
	df	210
	Sig.	0.000

and

Table 3. Total variance explained.

Total Variance Explained
Component	Initial Eigenvalues			Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings			Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %
1	7.460	35.522	35.522	7.460	35.522	35.522	3.074	14.638	14.638
2	1.963	9.350	44.872	1.963	9.350	44.872	3.033	14.442	29.080
3	1.781	8.480	53.352	1.781	8.480	53.352	2.661	12.673	41.753
4	1.661	7.912	61.264	1.661	7.912	61.264	2.239	10.661	52.414
5	1.323	6.301	67.565	1.323	6.301	67.565	2.165	10.312	62.726
6	1.106	5.268	72.833	1.106	5.268	72.833	2.122	10.107	72.833
7	0.574	2.735	75.568
8	0.522	2.487	78.055
9	0.489	2.327	80.382
10	0.483	2.298	82.681
11	0.466	2.221	84.902
12	0.453	2.158	87.060
13	0.439	2.089	89.149
14	0.402	1.913	91.062
15	0.337	1.607	92.668
16	0.333	1.587	94.255
17	0.302	1.440	95.695
18	0.282	1.342	97.037
19	0.249	1.187	98.225
20	0.218	1.038	99.263
21	0.155	0.737	100.000

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.

, yielded a total of six factors with a total explanatory power of 72.833% > 50%, indicating that the six factors screened were well represented. As shown in

Table 4. Rotated component matrix.

Rotated Component Matrix a
Component
	1	2	3	4	5	6
APV1	0.177	0.143	0.712	0.353	0.116	0.058
APV2	0.130	0.193	0.783	0.016	0.086	0.033
APV3	0.111	0.139	0.802	0.067	0.078	0.042
APV4	0.192	0.106	0.765	−0.065	0.060	0.027
PNC1	0.145	0.180	0.032	0.757	0.084	0.013
PNC2	0.107	0.111	0.088	0.822	0.075	0.032
PNC3	0.115	0.110	0.057	0.816	0.021	0.032
POC1	0.198	0.168	0.051	0.040	−0.043	0.776
POC2	0.150	0.087	0.057	0.033	0.070	0.813
POC3	0.092	0.127	0.015	0.007	0.038	0.807
NMT1	0.129	0.055	0.109	0.079	0.827	0.054
NMT2	0.128	0.160	0.061	0.100	0.800	−0.008
NMT3	0.202	0.159	0.108	0.008	0.775	0.024
BA1	0.216	0.787	0.164	0.159	0.159	0.147
BA2	0.245	0.787	0.188	0.135	0.113	0.126
BA3	0.205	0.811	0.160	0.134	0.106	0.099
BA4	0.219	0.795	0.161	0.139	0.127	0.166
SSS1	0.825	0.262	0.207	0.155	0.159	0.178
SSS2	0.781	0.285	0.189	0.136	0.170	0.184
SSS3	0.811	0.229	0.203	0.173	0.167	0.147
SSS4	0.800	0.227	0.185	0.131	0.202	0.180

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis; Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. ^a Rotation converged in six iterations.

, the factor loadings of each measurement question item were all greater than 0.5, and the cross-loadings were all less than 0.4, and each question item fell into the corresponding factor, which had good construct validity.

4.3. Confirmatory Factor Analysis

The measurement model consisting of six latent variables with 21 indicators was evaluated using confirmatory factor analysis in AMOS 26.0. The results demonstrated robust psychometric properties, with all standardized factor loadings exceeding 0.60, indicating strong item reliability. Composite reliability values ranged between 0.78 and 0.92, well above the recommended 0.70 threshold, while average variance extracted estimates varied from 0.52 to 0.68, surpassing the 0.50 benchmark for convergent validity. Following the Fornell-Larcker criterion [56], discriminant validity was established as the square root of each construct’s AVE (shown in bold along the diagonal in

Table 5. The results of validation factor analysis.

Variant	Variant	Subject	CR	AVE
APV	APV1	0.712	0.819	0.531
	APV2	0.783
	APV3	0.802
	APV4	0.765
PNC	PNC1	0.757	0.771	0.529
	PNC2	0.822
	PNC3	0.816
POC	POC1	0.776	0.764	0.522
	POC2	0.813
	POC3	0.807
NMT	NMT1	0.827	0.780	0.542
	NMT2	0.8
	NMT3	0.775
BA	BA1	0.787	0.897	0.687
	BA2	0.787
	BA3	0.811
	BA4	0.795
SSS	SSS1	0.825	0.933	0.777
	SSS2	0.781
	SSS3	0.811
	SSS4	0.8

) exceeded all corresponding inter-construct correlation coefficients (presented in the lower triangle of

Table 6. Distinctive validity and correlation analysis.

Variable	APV	PNC	POC	NMT	BA	SSS
APV	0.729
PNC	0.242 ***	0.727
POC	0.165 ***	0.119 **	0.723
NMT	0.278 ***	0.204 ***	0.119 **	0.736
BA	0.435 ***	0.369 ***	0.351 ***	0.361 ***	0.829
SSS	0.469 ***	0.366 ***	0.404 ***	0.429 ***	0.597 ***	0.881

Note: ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.

), confirming distinctness between the measured constructs.

4.4. Correlation Analysis

In the context of wood material usage, correlation analysis helps identify relationships between key variables that influence material performance. A strong correlation (coefficients ≥ 0.7) indicates a significant relationship between variables, such as the strong correlation between BA and SSS (0.597), suggesting that changes in one are likely to affect the other significantly. A moderate correlation (coefficients between 0.3 and 0.7) reflects a more moderate relationship, such as the correlation between APV and PNC (0.242), indicating some connection but with less impact. A weak correlation (coefficients between 0 and 0.3), such as the relationship between POC and PNC (0.119), suggests minimal association. These correlations provide insights into which factors are more likely to influence each other, helping to prioritize variables for further analysis in improving material performance and selecting appropriate wood materials for specific applications.

As shown in

Table 7. Table of results of correlation analysis.

Variable	Average Value	Standard Deviation	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. APV	3.344	0.774	1
2. PNC	3.612	0.775	0.242 ***	1
3. POC	3.605	0.834	0.165 ***	0.119 **	1
4. NMT	3.272	0.766	0.278 ***	0.204 ***	0.119 **	1
5. BA	3.746	0.749	0.435 ***	0.369 ***	0.351 ***	0.361 ***	1
6. SSS	3.412	0.870	0.469 ***	0.366 ***	0.404 ***	0.429 ***	0.597 ***	1

Note: ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.

, this paper performs Pearson correlation analysis of the variables, specifically the mean, standard deviation, and correlation coefficient of each variable. Among them, *** indicates that the significance p-value is less than 0.001, ** indicates that the p-value is less than 0.01, and * indicates that the p is less than 0.05. The diagonal line refers to the variable’s own correlation (for 1), and the value of the two-by-two correlation coefficients between the variables can be obtained from the table. In the last line of the table, the correlation value between the variable and all the variables can be analyzed. Through the correlation analysis, based on the positivity and negativity of the correlation coefficients, it is possible to determine whether the variables are positively or negatively correlated with each other, which paves the way for subsequent hypothesis testing.

4.5. Structural Equation Modeling Analysis

The hypothesized model was estimated using the maximum likelihood method in AMOS 23.0. As illustrated in Figure 2 and summarized in

Table 8. Table of model fit.

Fitness Index	An Explanation of the Meaning of Words or Phrases	Reasonable Range	Result	Assessment Results
GFI	Goodness-of-fit index	>0.8, reasonable model fit; >0.9, good model fit	0.962	Good
AGFI	Adjusted general fit index	>0.8, reasonable model fit; >0.9, good model fit	0.949	Good
RMR	Root mean square index of residuals	<0.08, reasonable model fit; <0.05, good model fit	0.028	Good
RMSEA	Root mean square index of approximation error	<0.08, reasonable model fit; <0.05, good model fit	0.031	Good
NFI	canonical fit index (CFI)	>0.8, reasonable model fit; >0.9, good model fit	0.961	Good
IFI	Corrected fit index	>0.8, reasonable model fit; >0.9, good model fit	0.985	Good
CFI	Comparison of fit indices	>0.8, reasonable model fit; >0.9, good model fit	0.985	Good
TLI	Comparison of fit indices	>0.8, reasonable model fit; >0.9, good model fit	0.981	Good

, all fit indices exceeded conventional thresholds, confirming robust theoretical-empirical consistency. The χ²/df ratio of 1.616 (<3 benchmark) demonstrates appropriate parsimony without model oversimplification, while the GFI (0.962) and AGFI (0.949) values reflect that over 95% of the observed variance are accounted for by the specified structure. Particularly noteworthy is the RMSEA value of 0.031 (90% CI: 0.026–0.037), which falls below the 0.08 cutoff for acceptable approximation error, suggesting the model effectively captures population covariance patterns. This is further corroborated by the RMR (0.028), indicating minimal residual covariance. The incremental fit indices (NFI = 0.961, IFI = 0.985, TLI = 0.981, CFI = 0.985) consistently surpass the 0.90 criterion, confirming the model’s superior explanatory power compared to null baseline models. Collectively, these diagnostics validate the structural model’s capacity to represent the underlying data generation process.

As shown in

Table 9. Table of path coefficients.

Trails	Standardized Coefficient β	Non-Standardized Coefficient	Standard Error	z-Value	p-Value	Assumption
BA←APV	0.296	0.409	−0.062	6.592	***	Valid
BA←PNC	0.241	0.333	−0.06	5.548	***	Valid
BA←POC	0.295	0.408	−0.059	6.929	***	Valid
BA↔NMT	0.218	0.302	−0.06	5.014	***	Valid
SSS←APV	0.219	0.342	−0.064	5.316	***	Valid
SSS←PNC	0.14	0.219	−0.061	3.595	***	Valid
SSS←POC	0.261	0.407	−0.063	6.427	***	Valid
SSS←NMT	0.228	0.356	−0.063	5.689	***	Valid
SSS←BA	0.268	0.302	−0.055	5.472	***	Valid

Note: *** p < 0.001.

, the coefficient of influence of APV on BA was 0.296 (z = 6.592, p < 0.001), indicating that APV had a significant positive effect on BA with a moderate degree of influence. The hypothesis is valid, which implies that an increase in APV significantly contributes to BA. The coefficient of the effect of PNC on BA is 0.241 (z = 5.548, p < 0.001), which indicates that PNC has a significant positive effect on BA, but the degree of effect is relatively weak. The hypothesis is valid, indicating that the increase in PNC contributes to the enhancement of BA, but the effect is relatively weak. The coefficient of effect of POC on BA is 0.295 (z = 6.929, p < 0.001), indicating that POC has a significant positive effect on BA, with a moderate degree of effect. The hypothesis is valid, which indicates that the increase in POC can effectively contribute to the increase in BA. The coefficient of influence of NMT on BA is 0.218 (z = 5.014, p < 0.001), which indicates that NMT has a significant positive influence on BA, but the strength of the influence is weak. The hypothesis is valid, which indicates that the effect of NMT on BA is present but limited.

The coefficient of the effect of APV on SSS was 0.219 (z = 5.316, p < 0.001), indicating that APV had a significant positive effect on SSS, but the effect was weak. The hypothesis is valid, which suggests that an increase in APV enhances SSS, but its effect is limited. The coefficient of the effect of PNC on SSS is 0.14 (z = 3.595, p < 0.001), which suggests that PNC has a significant positive effect on SSS, but the effect is weak. The hypothesis is valid, which indicates that the increase in PNC has a weak effect on the enhancement of SSS. The coefficient of influence of POC on SSS is 0.261 (z = 6.427, p < 0.001), which indicates that POC has a significant positive effect on SSS with a moderate effect. The hypothesis is valid, which indicates that POC has made a more significant contribution to enhancing SSS. The coefficient of influence of NMT on SSS is 0.228 (z = 5.689, p < 0.001), which indicates that NMT has a significant positive influence on SSS with a weak influence. The hypothesis is valid, which suggests that an increase in NMT can contribute to SSS.

The coefficient of influence of BA on SSS is 0.268 (z = 5.472, p < 0.001), indicating that BA has a significant positive effect on SSS with a medium level of influence. The hypothesis is valid, which indicates that the increase in BA significantly contributes to the SSS.

4.6. Intermediary Testing

In this study, the mediation effect was verified using Bootstrapping. Bootstrap confidence intervals that do not contain 0 correspond to the presence of a mediation effect. The Bootstrap method was run 5000 times in AMOS 23.0 to derive the level values of Bias-Corrected versus Percentile at a 95% confidence level, as shown in

Table 10. Intermediation test table.

Intermediation Test
Path	Significance	Effect	95% CI		Bias-Corrected
			Lower	Upper	Lower	Upper
APV→BA→SSS	indirect effect	0.096	0.058	0.119	0.862	1.056
APV→BA	X→M	0.271	0.207	0.335	0.590	0.797
BA→SSS	M→Y	0.353	0.273	0.433	0.700	0.712
APV→SSS	direct effect	0.235	0.166	0.304	0.477	0.724
APV→SSS	aggregate effect	0.331	0.262	0.400	0.822	0.892
PNC→BA→SSS	indirect effect	0.078	0.045	0.096	0.421	0.548
PNC→BA	X→M	0.221	0.159	0.283	0.825	0.960
BA→SSS	M→Y	0.353	0.273	0.433	0.646	0.730
PNC→SSS	direct effect	0.151	0.085	0.218	0.226	0.525
PNC→SSS	aggregate effect	0.229	0.162	0.297	0.751	0.762
POC→BA→SSS	indirect effect	0.080	0.053	0.105	0.312	0.486
POC→BA	X→M	0.228	0.171	0.284	0.785	1.032
BA→SSS	M→Y	0.353	0.273	0.433	0.014	0.233
POC→SSS	direct effect	0.231	0.170	0.292	0.932	0.946
POC→SSS	aggregate effect	0.311	0.250	0.373	0.983	1.107
NMT→BA→SSS	indirect effect	0.071	0.039	0.088	0.791	0.918
NMT→BA	X→M	0.201	0.138	0.265	0.321	0.431
BA→SSS	M→Y	0.353	0.273	0.433	0.527	0.541
NMT→SSS	direct effect	0.234	0.167	0.302	0.054	0.157
NMT→SSS	aggregate effect	0.306	0.236	0.375	0.290	0.348

.

The indirect effect of APV on SSS via BA was 0.096, with a 95% CI of [0.058, 0.119], indicating that BA played a significant mediating role in the effect of APV on SSS. The effect of APV directly on SSS was 0.235, with a total effect of 0.331, suggesting that the effect of APV on SSS was partially mediated by BA. The effect of PNC on SSS via BA was an indirect effect of 0.078, with a 95% CI of [0.045, 0.096], indicating that BA also had a significant mediating effect between PNC and SSS. The effect of PNC directly on SSS was 0.151, with a total effect of 0.229, suggesting that a portion of the effect was mediated by BA. The indirect effect of POC on SSS via BA was 0.080, with a 95% CI of [0.053, 0.105]. BA also had a significant mediating role in the pathway of POC to SSS. The direct effect of POC on SSS was 0.231, with a total effect of 0.311, suggesting a non-negligible mediating role for BA. The indirect effect of NMT on SSS through BA is 0.071 (95% CI: [0.039, 0.088]), confirming BA’s significant mediating role in the relationship between NMT and SSS. The direct effect of NMT on SSS was 0.234, with a total effect of 0.306, emphasizing the importance of BA in the relationship between NMT and SSS.BA. As a mediator variable, it showed a significant mediating effect in the pathways of APV, PNC, POC, and NMT on SSS, indicating that BA has a critical role.

5. Discussion

5.1. Immediate Effects of Perceived Wood Design

The results of this study indicate that all four dimensions of wood stadium design perception—visual perceived value, perceived natural connection, olfactory comfort, and natural material tactility—positively affect spectator satisfaction in sports stadiums. This finding validates Hypothesis H1, which states that the perception of a wooden sports stadium design can effectively enhance spectator experience. In other words, the increase in visual perceived value (H1a) makes the overall environment of the sports stadium more attractive, thus enhancing spectator pleasure; perceived natural connection (H1b) helps spectators establish a psychological connection with the natural environment and enhances spectator comfort and immersion; perceived olfactory comfort (H1c) reduces environmental stimuli and enhances spectator relaxation through the natural scent of wood; and natural material tactility (H1d) enhances the spectator’s comfort perception through tactile experience, further increasing spectator satisfaction.

The sensory benefits of wooden elements are further amplified through their synergy with built-environment systems. The porous structure of timber naturally modulates stadium acoustics by absorbing high-frequency sounds while reflecting low-frequency reverberations, creating an auditory environment that enhances speech clarity during announcements without an excessive echo. This acoustic performance complements wood’s visual warmth to reduce sensory overload. Similarly, wood’s hygroscopic properties interact with mechanical ventilation systems to stabilize indoor humidity levels between 40 and 60%, a range proven to optimize both olfactory comfort and respiratory ease. Most critically, the spectral reflectance of unfinished wood surfaces works synergistically with LED lighting to produce circadian-effective illuminance, reducing glare while maintaining the visual texture that drives perceived naturalness. These multi-sensory integrations position wood not as isolated design elements but as active mediators of biophilic microclimate regulation.

5.2. Intermediary Effect

The findings further suggest that biophilic affinity plays a mediating role in the process by which perceptions of wooden sports stadium design influence spectator satisfaction. This finding supports Hypothesis H2, which states that biophilic affinity plays a key role in the perceived wooden design of sports stadiums and spectator satisfaction. In terms of specific dimensions, the mediating effect of biophilic affinity between visual perceived value and spectator satisfaction (H2a) suggests that visually natural elements not only directly affect the spectator’s esthetic experience, but also enhance the sense of psychological relaxation through biophilic affinity, which in turn enhances spectator satisfaction; and the mediating effect of biophilic affinity between wooden seating comfort and spectator satisfaction (H2b) suggests that the comfort of wooden seating not only directly enhances experiential feelings, but also enhances spectators’ psychological comfort and overall satisfaction due to its natural attributes. In addition, biophilic affinity plays a partial mediating role in the process of perceived natural connection affecting spectator satisfaction (H2c), indicating that spectators perceive a connection to nature through the wooden design, thus enhancing their psychological comfort; similarly, in the process of natural material Tactility affecting spectator satisfaction (H2d), biophilic affinity plays a positive mediating role, further enhancing spectators’ affinity to the stadium environment and the sense and pleasurable experience.

The mediating effect of biophilic affinity is most pronounced when wood interfaces are combined with environmental control systems. For example, the combined acoustic and thermal effect. Wood-paneled walls can simultaneously reduce ambient noise and radiate infrared heat–enhancing biophilic responses by replicating the microclimate of a forest canopy. This explains why gymnasiums with wood ceilings combined with diffused lighting have higher visitor friendliness and satisfaction, while the interplay of wood grain patterns under soft lighting mimics dappled sunlight penetrating through, stimulating an innate sense of biophilic relaxation.

5.3. Research Comparison

The results of this study are somewhat consistent with previous studies on sports stadium environments and spectator satisfaction. For example, Yeh et al. examined the physical environment of sports stadiums, including seating comfort, architectural esthetics, and accessibility, and found that all of these factors significantly influenced spectator satisfaction [57]. Heerden and Cornelius, on the other hand, examined the role of facility esthetics and cleanliness in sports stadiums on spectator satisfaction, emphasizing the impact of the overall environmental design of the venue on the experience [27].

In addition, it has been shown that the use of natural elements in built environments can enhance user satisfaction and cognitive performance. Shen et al. found that wood design improved user attention and cognitive performance while increasing environmental preferences compared to non-wooden environments [58]. In their study, Watchman et al. showed that wood building materials create a warm and cozy atmosphere that enhances the pleasantness of the space and the comfort of the users [59]. All these studies support this study’s conclusion that wood design perception positively affects spectator satisfaction. While this study expands on previous studies, this study not only focuses on the physical environment of sports stadiums, but also further explores the effects of specific perceptual dimensions of wood design (visual, tactile, olfactory, and sensory) on spectator satisfaction, which provides a finer measure of the design of sport building environments. Second, the mediating role of biophilic affinity between wood design perceptions and spectator satisfaction expands the research on environmental psychology and fills the research gap between environmental design and psychological perceptions in sports stadiums.

5.4. Critical Reflection on the Use of Wood in Stadiums

Although wood offers esthetic and environmental benefits in stadium design, there are also notable challenges that need to be addressed. One key issue is the durability of wood. As a natural material, wood is more susceptible to wear and damage, especially in high-traffic environments like sports venues. Exposure to moisture, constant movement, and varying weather conditions can lead to a decrease in both its longevity and its appearance. At the same time, considering the natural properties of wood materials, it is important to emphasize that the texture and knots on the surface of the wood need to be differentiated during construction, which will also increase construction costs [60].

Maintenance is another consideration. Wood requires more regular care than some other materials to prevent issues such as rot or warping. This can result in higher maintenance costs over time. Additionally, the need for specific maintenance solutions based on the stadium’s environment could further complicate upkeep.

Fire resistance is also an important factor when using wood in large buildings. Even though modern treatments can improve its fire resistance, wood remains more combustible than materials like steel or concrete. This means extra attention is needed in fireproofing and ensuring compliance with safety regulations, which can lead to increased costs and more frequent safety checks. Despite these challenges, the use of wood in stadiums can still be beneficial when these issues are carefully managed. By addressing these concerns, wood can continue to play an important role in the design of sports venues.

6. Conclusions

The findings suggest that (1) four-dimensional wood design perceptions positively affect stadium spectator satisfaction; (2) biophilia plays a mediating role in four-dimensional wood design perceptions affecting stadium spectator satisfaction. This study enriches the theoretical framework of the pro-natural design hypothesis, provides insights into the potential of wooden stadium design to enhance the spectator experience, and provides new empirical evidence for the field of architectural and environmental psychology. By revealing the emotional role played by biophilicity in multi-sensory dimensions, it has important practical guidance for enhancing spectator satisfaction, optimizing spatial experience design, and promoting the integration of architectural design with the natural environment in sports stadiums, which has broad social and cultural value.

7. Shortcomings and Prospects

This study acknowledges certain limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. The reliance on self-reported perceptual data from 641 Asian respondents, while statistically robust for SEM analysis, may be subject to inherent response biases such as social desirability effects and mood-congruent reporting patterns, without complementary objective measures like physiological stress indicators or behavioral observation data. The exclusive focus on Asian contexts also limits understanding of whether the observed effects of wood design and biophilic affinity are culture-specific or universally applicable. Although this study focuses on visual and tactile perceptions, the influence of acoustics, particularly the sound absorption qualities of wood–presents an important aspect of spectator experience that warrants further investigation. Future research should pursue integrated methodological approaches combining psychophysiological measurements (e.g., electrodermal activity for arousal assessment, eye-tracking for visual attention patterns) with acoustic parameter analysis and cross-cultural replications in diverse geographical settings to validate these findings. These directions would address current limitations while advancing the theoretical understanding of multi-sensory environmental design in sports architecture.