Morphological Evolution and Socio-Cultural Transformation in Historic Urban Areas: A Historic Urban Landscape Approach from Luoyang, China

Abstract

The historical authenticity of historic urban areas has been compromised, and community cohesion has declined, necessitating comprehensive methods to systematically identify spatial textures and socio-cultural transformation characteristics. This study investigates the Jianxi Historic Urban Area in Luoyang from a Historic Urban Landscape perspective, integrating GIS, sDNA tools, and semi-structured interviews to analyze material spatial evolution and socio-cultural shifts. The findings reveal stable street network structures enhanced by road expansions, functional intensification marked by rising residential density and tertiary sector growth, and high replacement rates of 1950s–1960s buildings that improved the area’s physical quality but disrupted historical continuity and heritage integrity. Material transformations fragmented collective memory and reshaped residents’ sense of place identity. This research proposes sustainable renewal strategies, emphasizing refined gradient control models, community identity revitalization, and participatory decision-making, offering actionable insights for regenerating historic urban areas.

1. Introduction

Since the beginning of the 21st century, China’s historic urban areas have suffered from authenticity erosion due to urban expansion and old-city renovation, with their overall spatial patterns and textures neglected [1,2]. Urban morphology, as a classical theoretical approach for systematically identifying and preserving the material spatial characteristics and historical textures of historic districts [3,4,5], emphasizes reproducibility. Its major schools include the British school (historical geography method) initiated by Conzen [3], the Italian school (process typology method) established by Muratori and Caniggia [6], the French school developed by Panerai and Castex in the 1960s [7], and Hillier’s space syntax methods explored in the 1980s [8,9,10]. Historical geography and process typology employ historical maps to investigate spatiotemporal relationships among spatial structures, architectural types, and socio-economic–cultural dynamics [4,11]. Research scales range from plot and neighborhood to city levels [12,13,14], focusing on land-use patterns, architectural textures, and street environments across different historical phases [15,16]. Recent breakthroughs, primarily grounded in space syntax theory and GIS tools, emphasize topological analyses of urban spatial structures or simulations of morphological evolution [17,18,19]. Despite methodological divergences between these approaches, interdisciplinary integrations have been increasingly explored [20,21,22,23,24,25].

Concurrently, the physical degradation of historic urban spaces has triggered the displacement or eviction of resident communities, leading to the gradual dissolution of original social networks and the fragmentation of residents’ identity and belonging [26,27]. However, traditional urban morphology studies face limitations in capturing socio-cultural transformations and daily life practices [28]. Jacobs (1961) pioneered the study of human activities in architectural environments, identifying four determinants of urban life: mixed primary uses, intensity, spatial permeability, and architectural diversity [29,30]. Gehl (1989) argued that successful urban places thrive on street life, where pedestrian activity is a prerequisite for vibrant public spaces [31]. Lynch (1984) emphasized the intrinsic link between cultural memory and memorable urban sites, where historical objects and places evoke collective imagery while shaping personal and place identities [32,33,34]. This consensus underscores that preserving historic environments is foundational for socio-economic regeneration, as residents must inhabit these spaces to sustain their “spirit of place” [35,36].

Within this context, a profound understanding of the transformation processes shaping historic urban areas is imperative. Integrating urban morphology with socio-cultural research [37,38] offers a pathway toward comprehensive and scientifically grounded development. The introduction of UNESCO’s Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) framework marks a paradigm shift, conceptualizing cities as “integrated composites of historical layers of cultural value and natural attributes” within broader geographic and social contexts [38]. HUL provides actionable tools for managing urban change dynamically, emphasizing six key steps and four strategic approaches [39]. Recent HUL-based studies focus on cities as products of long-term interactions between natural environments and human traditions [40], prioritizing the balance between heritage conservation and social development [41,42].

Luoyang, a city of historical and cultural significance in the Central Plains, was the capital for several dynasties. Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, Luoyang has undertaken six projects from the “156 Projects” (Soviet-aided industrialization initiative), forming a large-scale industrial district—Jianxi Historic Urban Area. The projects have helped drive the city’s economic and social development [43], and Luoyang has transitioned from an agrarian to an industrial hub, embodying immense heritage value. However, over the past four decades, policy direction adjustments, industrial structure shifts, and evolving land-use demands have caused the urban area to experience significant landscape changes, economic decline, and community fragmentation [44].

While existing scholarship has involved in-depth urban morphology studies on ancient cultural heritage sites in Luoyang [45], limited attention has been given to the morphological evolution of modern heritage. Moreover, current research has gaps regarding historic urban areas’ holistic integrity, functional vitality, and socio-cultural dimensions [46,47]. This study fills these gaps by adopting an HUL perspective and integrating analysis methods involving tangible and intangible spatial evolution within historical industrial urban areas. Through systematic documentation of these areas’ morphological characteristics, this research provides a theoretical foundation for heritage regeneration. Furthermore, the industrial historic urban areas of many Chinese cities (such as Wuhan, Xi’an, and Chengdu), which share similarities with Luoyang’s Jianxi Historic Urban Area, currently face the challenge of balancing heritage preservation with urban development demands [48,49]. By using Luoyang as a case study, this research provides transferable insights for the sustainable renewal of industrial historic urban areas in analogous urban contexts.

This study presents a theoretical framework and methodological system for the regeneration of historic urban areas from the HUL perspective. Specifically, it integrates GIS-based technical tools to analyze the historical evolution and spatial characteristics of tangible and intangible spaces within historic urban zones. The research combines archival documents and field surveys and selects satellite imagery from four representative time nodes—1966, 1978, 2007, and 2024—to conduct morphological analyses and explore cultural memory manifestations. This study addresses three critical questions:

(1)

How has the physical space morphology of Luoyang’s Jianxi Historical Urban Area evolved?

(2)

How has cultural memory been transformed over time within this area?

(3)

What implications do these transformations hold for urban historic areas renewal?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The historical urban area of Jianxi District in Luoyang is located in the western part of the city near the Luo River. The area was established in the 1950s as a key industrial district during the First Five-Year Plan of the People’s Republic of China through six major industrial construction projects. From west to east along the Jian River, the area includes the Luoyang Copper Processing Factory, Luoyang Ball Bearing Factory, Luoyang No.1 Tractor Factory, Luoyang Mining Machinery Factory, Henan Diesel Engine Factory, and Luoyang Thermal Power Factory. These factories form the backbone of Luoyang’s industrial economy. The district’s construction was influenced by Soviet urban planning and architectural styles and adopted the “south residential, north industrial” model, organizing the industrial new city with a layout of industrial zones, green belts, residential areas, commercial areas, and research and education zones. The factory area has an axial symmetry layout, and the residential areas are neatly planned.

This study focuses on the historical urban area defined in the Luoyang Historical and Cultural City Protection Plan. The Luoyang Refractory Materials Plant, which overlaps with the “156 Projects” in construction period and geographical location, is within the boundaries of the historical urban area (Figure 1).

2.2. Research Methodology

The HUL framework is flexible and adaptable, allowing for the integration of both traditional and innovative tools into urban management practices [50,51]. The HUL guidelines summarize the tools needed for addressing complex environmental research and cultural heritage management. These toolkits include (1) knowledge- and planning-based tools, such as studies on partners and stakeholders that consider local government needs, mapping, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and morphological research; (2) community engagement tools, including cultural mapping, learning initiatives, community surveys, resident participation activities, community empowerment, and step-by-step policy improvement schemes based on local reflection; (3) regulatory tools, encompassing community planning and local laws/regulations on heritage conservation and development; and (4) financial tools, covering grants and seed funding. Integrating these four tool categories enables effective management by aligning urban development with heritage conservation [39].

This study constructed a universal research framework (Figure 2) based on the HUL perspective, investigating tangible and intangible spaces in Luoyang’s Jianxi Historic Urban Area through knowledge and planning tools and community engagement tools. The first step in the framework involves studying cities’ physical appearance, including spatial layout, land use, and architectural forms. Spatial layout is the most complex morphological structure, and it remains relatively unchanged throughout a city’s history. To study a city’s formation process, a historical evolution perspective is required. The city’s elements are decomposed into street systems, plots, and blocks [52]. Streets are the framework of planning, and their geometric shapes and topological structures are the key elements for morphological research. Regarding land use, this study investigates four representative historical years to reflect distinct developmental phases and considers the functional evolution of plots. Additionally, the evolution patterns of facility distribution are analyzed to examine the trajectory of urban functional development. The architectural forms of typical blocks are selected to study their morphological evolution processes.

Second, the city’s perceptible space highlights the subjective aspects of cognition and perception. In addition, studying the literature, images, and research materials from different periods helps in the analysis of public perception from an empirical perspective and complements the invisible aspects of daily life and the city, such as living scenes, and cultural and entertainment activities [53]. Simultaneously, the interview method is well suited for investigating the intricacies and complexities of daily life, enabling researchers to understand how participants construct their everyday lives based on specific cultural memories [54,55].

2.3. Data Resources

2.3.1. Selection of Research Years

The urban development of Jianxi Historic Urban Area is the product of policies and urban planning. As illustrated in Figure 3, four representative years—1966, 1978, 2007, and 2024—were selected, each corresponding to distinctive developmental stages: 1966 represents the initial formation of an industrial urban area under a planned economy; 1978 marks the beginning of urban spatial transformation driven by reform and opening-up policies; 2007 indicates a peak period characterized by real estate development and urban renewal; and 2024 begins a new phase emphasizing the balanced preservation and adaptive reuse of industrial heritage. These four years clearly reflect the typicality and research significance of urban spatial and social transformations.

2.3.2. Alignment of Satellite Imagery

Map data from different historical periods were unified and aligned to the WGS84 coordinate system. The 2024 map was used as a reference during the georeferencing process, with fixed elements (e.g., road intersections and landmark buildings) identified as control points. Historical satellite imagery from Google Earth and the 2024 map were imported into ArcGIS. By utilizing the georeferencing toolbar, the current satellite map was set as the base layer, and seven reference coordinates (

Table 1. Seven precise reference coordinates.

Reference Coordinate	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
	Mining Machinery Factory’s Gate	Gate of Block 2	No.1 Tractor Factory’s Gate	Gate of Block 10	Ball Bearing Factory’s Gate	Copper Processing Factory’s Gate	Refractory Material Factory’s Gate
Longitude	112.3576289	112.3636825	112.3732578	112.3835244	112.3909259	112.4029538	34.66523164
Latitude	34.6786271	34.67181636	34.67336293	34.66758307	34.66820779	34.66523164	34.66743389

) from other historical maps were sequentially matched with their corresponding positions on the base map until full alignment was achieved (Figure 4).

2.3.3. Historical and Planning Documents

For the purposes of this study, the land use and road network data (Figure 5 and Figure 6) were primarily sourced from urban master plans and territorial spatial planning documents provided by the Luoyang Municipal Natural Resources Bureau (URL: https://www.ly.gov.cn; accessed on 3 June and 30 November 2024). These documents include the 2000, 2011, and 2021 editions of the Luoyang Municipal Land–Space Overall Planning (2021–2035). Data prior to 1985 (

Table 2. Historical documentation of the Jianxi Historic Urban Area (source: Luoyang Library).

Maps	Urban Master Plan	Urban Master Plan	Conservation Planning for Historic and Cultural Cities
	1956	1981	1987
Documents	Luoyangshizhi 1955–1985 (Luoyang Municipal Chronicles)	Jianxiquzhi 1955–1985 (Jianxi District Chronicles)	Yituochangzhi 1955–1985 (Luoyang Tractor Factory’s Chronicles) Chaiyoujichangzhi 1955–1985 (Henan Diesel Engine Factory Chronicles) Luonaichangzhi 1955–1985 (Luoyang Refractory Material Factory Chronicles)

) were obtained from the 1956 and 1981 urban master plans and the 1987 Historic and Cultural City Conservation Plan archived at the Luoyang Planning Exhibition Hall. Additionally, supplementary land use, road network information, and building profile were derived from historical documents, including the Luoyang Municipal Chronicles, Jianxi District Chronicles, and factory records held at the Luoyang Library. These materials are valuable references for understanding residents’ livelihoods and historical urban dynamics.

2.3.4. Interview Data Resources and Gathering

This study’s fieldwork involved semi-structured interviews conducted with eight long-term residents (

Table 3. Demographic profile of workers.

Participant Code	Age	Gender	Duration of Residence
Worker-1	42	Male	20 years
Worker-2	47	Male	15 years
Worker-3	51	Female	26 years
Worker-4	55	Female	22 years
Worker-5	59	Female	30 years
Worker-6	64	Male	33 years
Worker-7	76	Female	41 years
Worker-8	84	Male	52 years

) of the worker community, including three retired workers, between 6 July 2023 and 20 November 2024. The sample size was determined by the scope of the research question, the nature of the topic (with more prominent themes requiring smaller samples), the quality of the data (richer data can reduce the sample size), the research design (longitudinal studies and group analysis require smaller samples than individual interviews), and the presence of shadow data (interviews that provide insights from others’ perspectives might reduce the sample size) [56].

The finalized sample size prioritizes depth over breadth, aligning with qualitative research principles emphasizing rich, contextualized data over statistical representativeness. The specific areas are as follows: (1) purposeful sampling: participants were selected based on stratified criteria, including age (spanning three generations: 1950s–1980s), occupation (retired workers, current workers, and community leaders), and residential tenure (≥10 years), ensuring coverage of diverse lived experiences and historical perspectives; (2) data saturation: iterative analysis of pilot interviews (n = 3) revealed that core themes such as “daily life transitions” and “community cohesion” stabilized by the sixth interview, indicating thematic saturation within the sample [57]; (3) triangulation: the findings were cross-validated with archival records (e.g., Jianxi District Chronicles) and field observation notes, reducing reliance on interviewee subjectivity.

Pilot interviews also ensure that academic terms are expressed in everyday language and that the interview guide is accurate and appropriate [58]. Finally, the core research concepts were refined into 16 interview questions, including the following:

• What are the most striking environmental elements in this area, and why?
• What collective activities or traditions are frequently held here?
• What is the most significant transformation you have experienced living in this area?

The final interviews lasted 30 to 120 min to collect sufficient information from the participants. The interviews were recorded with the participants’ consent. If consent for recording was not given, the author took notes and transcribed the discussion into a digital format afterward. All participants signed written consent forms clearly stating how the information would be used and outlining privacy protection measures to ensure the confidentiality and security of their data.

2.4. GIS, Kernel Density Estimation, and sDNA Tools

2.4.1. GIS Tool

Quantitative indicators of urban space can be divided into various types, including morphological, density, and functional categories. A quantitative indicator system is an effective tool and method for research, but it needs to be adjusted according to each study’s specific objectives and needs.

GIS analyzes geometric parameters, which describe the geometric characteristics of material forms, such as building perimeter, average height, shape index, quantity, and density, or the length, width, and density of infrastructure such as roads, sidewalks, and bicycle lanes. Through ArcGIS, geographic spatial information can be obtained from the internet, processed, and presented graphically [59,60].

2.4.2. Kernel Density Estimation

The kernel density estimation method assumes that geographic events can occur at any location in space, with varying probabilities of occurrence at different locations [61].

$$f\left(x\right)=\sum _{i=1}^{n}k\left({\displaystyle \frac{x-xi}{h}}\right)$$

(1)

In Formula (1), f(x) represents the kernel density value within the threshold range, n indicates the total number of toponyms within the threshold range, h denotes the specified search distance of the density value window, and k is the kernel density value. A higher f(x) value indicates a denser distribution of traditional village toponyms, reflecting a higher degree of clustering.

This study employs kernel density estimation to quantify the distribution characteristics of urban facility POIs (points of interest), enabling the analysis of urban functional structure, service efficiency, spatial vitality, and residential demand.

2.4.3. sDNA Tool

Spatial Design Network Analysis (sDNA) is an extended spatial syntax model developed by Cardiff University (United Kingdom) that measures the multi-scale spatial topology patterns of urban street networks [62]. Compared to traditional models, sDNA can treat many curved links as a single unit rather than individual straight segments, significantly improving the computational speed of road networks. sDNA can also perform equivalent calculations for distance, angle, or direction variations across the X, Y, and Z axes on the ArcGIS 10.7 platform [63]. Therefore, the sDNA tool can analyze the potential vitality distribution of three-dimensional networks. Drawing on Dhanani and Vaughan (2016) and Kang (2017), we chose closeness and betweenness centrality to analyze the topological characteristics of the three-dimensional pedestrian network in the study area [64,65].

Closeness represents the degree of clustering of the pedestrian networks within a study area. This indicator highlights how connected and accessible a local space is within the broader network. High levels of closeness indicate that a location has high accessibility and centrality. The solution adopted by sDNA is to measure the average travel distance from a node to other spatial nodes, known as mean Euclidean distance (MED). MED is defined by Equation (2):

$$MEDx={\displaystyle \frac{{\sum }_{\mathrm{y}\mathsf{ϵ}\mathrm{R}\mathrm{x}}{\mathrm{d}}_{\mathrm{E}}(\mathrm{x},\mathrm{y})\mathrm{P}\left(\mathrm{y}\right)}{{\sum }_{\mathrm{y}\mathsf{ϵ}\mathrm{R}\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{P}\left(\mathrm{y}\right)}},$$

(2)

where MED(x) is the closeness of node x in the system, Rx is the set of all links reached by link x over a certain distance, P(y) is the weight of point y within the search radius, and dE(x, y) is the shortest path distance from point x to point y.

Betweenness represents the number of times a road network is traversed by the shortest path between any two connected segments within a specific search radius, reflecting the potential of the street as a crossing motion channel [66]. The higher the intermediary degree, the stronger the road network’s traffic capacity [67]. This study focuses on the traffic potential of spatial networks; therefore, betweenness (BtA) was used as to measure the degree of mediating. BtA is defined by Equation (3):

$$BtA (x)={\sum }_{y\in N} {\sum }_{z\in Ry}OD \left(y, z, x\right)P \left(z\right)$$

(3)

where BtA(x) represents the betweenness of node x, Ry is the set of nodes within the search radius R of node y, P(z) is the weight of node z within the search radius, and N is the collection of polylines in the global spatial system. OD(y, x, z) represents the shortest topological path between nodes y and z passing through node x in the search radius R, as defined by Equation (4):

$$OD(y,z,x)=\left\{\begin{array}{c}1, if x is on the shortest path from y to z\\ {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}, if x=y\ne z\\ {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}, if x=z\ne y\\ {\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}, if x=y=z\\ 0, otherwise\end{array}\right.$$

(4)

3. Results

3.1. Evolution of Physical Space

3.1.1. Road Network

Figure 7 illustrates the evolution of the road network in the Jianxi Historic Urban Area, revealing the following patterns: (1) Temporal characteristics: the core road system was largely established by 1966; the period between 1978 and 2007 saw the most extensive road development; by 2024, the addition of a metro line marked a significant enhancement in transportation infrastructure. (2) Morphological characteristics: five major east–west arteries and two north–south arterials form the structural backbone of the network; while primary and secondary roads remained largely unchanged over time, the number of tertiary roads and alleyways increased significantly.

Using the sDNA tool, this study analyzed the betweenness centrality and closeness centrality of the road network in the Jianxi Historic Urban Area from 1966 to 2024, revealing the following evolutionary patterns (Figure 8):

• 1966: High accessibility in industrial zones (e.g., the front area of Luoyang First Tractor Factory) and the southern commercial district, but insufficient traffic capacity in the central-southern high-density residential area.
• 1978: Overall improvement in network connectivity, yet persistent structural deficiencies in the southern workers’ residential area.
• 2007: Comprehensive development of the road network significantly enhanced accessibility in residential zones, but continued optimization needs near the Henan Diesel Engine Factory and surrounding areas.
• 2024: The road network structure continued the framework established in 2007, with a wider distribution of areas exhibiting high accessibility and betweenness centrality, reflecting systemic improvements in transportation efficiency and capacity. These findings represent marked progress in infrastructure optimization.

3.1.2. Land-Use

As shown in Figure 9, over nearly six decades of evolution, notable changes in land use have occurred: the area of arable land decreased significantly and eventually disappeared (the arable land area was 2.27 km² in 1966, reduced to 1.87 km² in 1987, and declined to zero by 2007); the area of vacant land decreased from 1.18 km² in 1966 to 0.8 km² in 2024; the area of roads gradually increased (from 1.82 km² in 1966 to 2.55 km² in 2024); and the residential area experienced a relatively significant increase (from 4.09 km² in 1966 to 5.43 km² in 2024). Specifically, the area of commercial land has increased significantly (from 4.09 km² in 1966 to 5.43 km² in 2024). Although the areas of educational, medical, cultural facilities, and public facilities land have witnessed relatively small increases, they still show a development trend.

The Sankey diagram is an intuitive visual tool for representing land-use changes, where the width of flow lines corresponds to the magnitude of transitions, and color-coding by periods differentiates transition intensity and directional differences, effectively highlighting critical nodes of spatiotemporal transformation [68,69]. Figure 10 demonstrates the land-use change patterns at different stages in the Jianxi Historic Urban Area:

(1)

1966–1978: A large-scale industrial construction and development period. Significant portions of orchard, arable, and vacant land were converted into industrial and residential land, while commercial and educational land areas expanded. This transformation was primarily driven by the central government’s coordinated efforts to mobilize national resources for Jianxi’s industrial development [68];

(2)

1978–2007: Industrial and residential land areas peaked, continuing to be dominated by conversions from orchard/arable/vacant land. Road networks expanded steadily, and facility land (including commercial, educational, and public services) gradually increased. These changes collectively mark Jianxi’s fastest urbanization phase.

(3)

2007–2024: Industrial land was reclassified as undeveloped land, signaling industrial decline. Residential land conversion to vacant land and roads reflected growing demands for neighborhood renewal. Continuous expansion of road and infrastructure areas highlights accelerated urban infrastructure development.

Spatial coverage of public service facilities demonstrates distinct evolutionary characteristics. Kernel density analysis in Figure 11 reveals that the kernel density value of educational facilities has increased remarkably from 1966 to the present, reflecting the reinforced emphasis on educational and scientific research resources. Meanwhile, the diffusion rate of commercial facilities accelerated significantly after 2007, with their service radius expanding from 500 m to 1200 m. Collectively, all facility types show a northward expansion from southern to northern areas.

3.1.3. Building Forms

High Turnover Rate and the Heritagization Dynamic

In 1966, over 80% of existing buildings in the Jianxi Historic Urban Area were related to Project 156 (Figure 12a). By 2024, less than 5% of buildings from the same period remained (Figure 12b). This drastic reduction highlights the high building turnover rate in the area, a phenomenon corroborated by the literature. These replacements are primarily driven by the fundamental flaws present in industrial and residential buildings erected during the 1950s and 1960s: irrational layouts, insufficient spatial capacity, and inadequate adaptability to evolving functional demands [69]. Historical records further indicate that average building heights in the 1960s ranged between three and four stories. By 2024, as shown in Figure 12c, industrial zones predominantly featured four- to five-story structures, while residential areas predominantly comprised buildings exceeding eight stories.

The preservation of historical industrial buildings is primarily attributed to the heritageification process. The concept of industrial heritage was first proposed in the 1987 Conservation Plan for Historic and Cultural Cities, which identified the protective value of Luoyang No.1 Tractor Factory’s main gate and front factory area, as well as Blocks No.2 and 10, though they were not granted formal heritage status. In 2013, Blocks No.2, 10, and 11; No.1 Tractor Factory’s main gate, office building, and front factory area; and Luoyang Copper Processing Factory’s front area were listed as the Seventh Batch of National Key Cultural Relics Protection Units, thus ensuring their intact preservation. From 2018 to 2021, Mining Machinery Factory and Refractory Material Factory structures were designated as National Industrial Heritage. Figure 13 shows that seven designated heritage buildings have been preserved due to their outstanding value. Meanwhile, four typical buildings (not designated as industrial heritage) were unintentionally preserved and included in the figure. These buildings exhibit architectural characteristics closely resembling those designated as heritage. These historical buildings are the most distinctive façade in the area.

External and Internal Spatial Changes in Typical Blocks

Table 4. Comparison of industrial and residential block forms between 1966 and 2024.

Type	Characteristics	Before (1966)	After (2024) Red Represents Updated Buildings
Residential	Preserved façade: internal shift to hybrid single-side and low-rise grids.
	Full redevelopment: perimeter layout shifted to scatter/high-rise grids.
Industrial	Factory boundary adjustments and extensive renovations, roads unchanged; industrial morphology evolved from dispersed small to integrated large structures.

Source: satellite imagery by https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/ (accessed on 8 December 2024), drawing by the author.

analyzes the primary morphological transformations in residential and industrial blocks. First, through the study of significantly renovated residential areas, two typical transformation patterns were identified: (1) Street-facing façade preservation: the original street-facing architectural form was retained, while internal structures transitioned from a single-perimeter layout to a hybrid of large-scale single-side enclosures and low-rise grid layouts. (2) Full redevelopment: the original perimeter-based layout evolved into a combination of scatter layouts and high-rise grid layouts.

Second, analysis of two typical large industrial enterprises revealed modifications in factory spatial boundaries and extensive building renovations, though road networks remained largely unchanged. Furthermore, the morphological characteristics of industrial architecture shifted from layouts dominated by dispersed small-scale structures to integrated, large-scale production facilities. This transformation reflects advancements in architectural technology and optimized spatial organization.

Through research, the quality of indoor spatial environments of residential blocks has undergone significant improvements: (1) Figure 14a illustrates the typical residential floor plan of workers’ housing in the 1950s, with unit areas ranging from 20 to 25 m² (specific examples labeled as 20 m², 23 m², and 25 m²). All configurations adopted open-plan layouts. Approximately three households shared a single kitchen and bathroom; (2) Figure 14b depicts the typical layout from the 1970s’ residential buildings, featuring unit areas generally between 60 and 70 m², and including independent kitchens and bathrooms with two bedrooms (with one functioning as a combined living–dining space), and balconies in all rooms; (3) Figure 14c presents the typical layout from the 1990s’ residential buildings, representing approximately 90 m² with modern spatial standards. The design incorporated dedicated kitchens, bathrooms, and living areas, along with two bedrooms equipped with individual balconies/windows. Post-2000 residential buildings have exhibited increasing diversification in interior layouts, demonstrating superior comfort levels compared to those of the 1990s. This evolution was primarily driven by synergistic factors including land value appreciation coupled with fiscal dependency mechanisms, accelerating urban population growth, and residents’ escalating pursuits of elevated living standards [70,71].

3.2. The Profound Changes in Daily Life

Historical satellite imagery and archival documents were utilized as primary sources, while space syntax methods and ArcGIS tools were employed to analyze the historical evolution of visible elements within the historic urban landscape. Material spatial transformations inevitably lead to the evolution of socio-cultural patterns. During the transformation of the Jianxi Historic Urban Area, residents’ collective memory and place identity have gradually weakened amid the waves of national institutional reforms and spatial changes.

3.2.1. Cultural Memories Rooted in Place

Consistency

During the planned economy period, collective housing regulated residents’ behavior through architectural design and standardized schedules, achieving strict control over time, space, and activities. This system created highly collectivized and uniform life trajectories, with neighborhood relationships deeply embedded in the traditional concept of family and showcasing strong emotional bonds.

In the 1970s and 1980s, many colleagues in our courtyard had close relationships. We went to and from work together, and our children attended the factory school. We always supported each other in whatever we did.

(Worker-5)

Our memories of youth involve riding bikes to the factory for work, with red houses lining the road.

(Worker-3)

All eight interviewees emphasized that the standard “Soviet-style red houses” constituted their most vivid collective memory of residing in the area. Notably, supporting facilities within the worker communities—including kindergartens, primary schools, and public baths—were deeply ingrained spatial imprints, with residents’ daily life patterns exhibiting a high degree of consistency. The interviewees unanimously observed that the community’s traditional architectural character gradually faded after the 1990s.

Collective Activities

Collective activities constituted the most vital component of collective memory. The interviewees unanimously observed that during the planned economy era, such activities were characterized by high frequency and rich content and were the primary means of social interaction among workers, fostering strong interpersonal bonds. Factory records and historical documents corroborate this fact [72], with Figure 15 illustrating the diverse range of activities prevalent at the time.

Back then, everyone would get excited whenever there was a technical breakthrough in the workshop. There were monthly technical commendation events—who wouldn’t want to strive for recognition?

(Worker-8)

Entertainment options were limited, but the most unforgettable moments were the sports meet. The stadium back then was truly majestic, with an electric atmosphere that electrified everyone.

(Worker-3)

I still prefer the old way of life. Everyday, apart from going to work, I would go home, cook, and care for the kids. There weren’t any significant worries. At that time, there was a strong sense of collective honor. The factories would organize basketball and football games, and I would take my kids to watch them. There were also movies on the weekends. Later, when my child worked in another city, we bought a new house for ourselves, and now that I’m retired, it’s just the two of us every day, with not much to do. Back then, we felt that going to work contributed to the country, but now people feel like it’s just to earn a wage. Life, well, it just goes on day by day.

(Worker-7)

After the commercialization of housing, some workers left their original factory jobs, leading to a divergence in daily routines from those who remained employed within the units. The proportion of non-unit workers gradually increased, and the previously collective and uniform production and living patterns evolved into more individualized and liberalized lifestyles. For example, public squares that were formerly social hubs transformed into spaces where elderly residents occasionally congregate. The scope of community members’ activities became increasingly diverse, with individuals forming small groups based on shared interests (e.g., singing, dancing, painting, or fitness) that spanned different neighborhoods. These activities extended beyond the physical confines of the community, fostering new forms of social interaction.

There are many residents in the community, but we don’t know most of them, and there’s no particular effort to get to know each other. It seems like everyone just minds their own business. People often say that while living conditions have improved, relationships have grown colder. When everyone worked and lived together, it was indeed livelier, but the material conditions were much worse. Honestly, if I had to choose, I’d still prefer life as it is now. I wouldn’t want to go back to the past.

(Worker-2)

3.2.2. The Weakening of Place Identity

Continuity

The interviewees generally agreed that the continuity of historic urban features has been disrupted. For instance, worker communities in the 1960s comprised architecturally cohesive neighborhoods spanning four kilometers, creating strong visual continuity (see Figure 16). Today, only scattered blocks retain their historical façades.

Back then, Zhongzhou Road was majestic—living there was a source of pride.

(Worker-1)

Aesthetically, I definitely preferred the uniformity of older buildings. However, their interior spaces were poorly designed and deteriorated. Renovating these spaces would have been better.

(Worker-4)

Additionally, four interviewees noted that the spatial relationship between factory zones and residential areas shifted from green space buffers to development land. This change symbolizes the region’s transition from industrial to mixed-use urban zones. Two interviewees suggested converting the area into an urban park. Figure 16 illustrates the sectional changes in the green belt between factory and residential zones.

Our neighborhood lacks parks and green spaces—nowhere to go for a walk. Back then, trees were planted to block industrial pollution. While converting them into buildings is understandable, turning the area into a park would have been ideal.

(Worker-5)

The central green belt used to be iconic. Now it’s just houses—it feels a bit uninteresting. But I understand—it’s part of development needs.

(Worker-6)

Distinctiveness

Respondents from different age groups had varying perceptions when asked about their understanding of industrial heritage value and uniqueness. Overall, most lacked awareness of industrial heritage’s significance as heritage, with greater emphasis placed on livelihood concerns. However, all participants agreed that Luoyang No.1 Tractor Factory is the most distinctive factory, and its preservation as a promotional highlight remains essential. Blocks 2 and 10, having undergone renovations, were not perceived as directly connected to industrial heritage. Instead, they were viewed as commercial operations driven by tourism development.

The Chairman Mao statues and architectural features at Yituo are highly unique. As the largest factory of its time, retaining these structures holds profound significance.

(Worker-8)

Old factories and residential areas represent the memories of multiple generations. For example, my children grew up in the worker community—there’s a deep emotional attachment. Preserving these architectural exteriors serves as a tangible representation of nostalgia for them.

(Worker-4)

We have no particular opinion on Blocks 2 and 10 renovation—they’re just commercial operations.

(Worker-7)

While the government promotes this area as an industrial heritage, our priority remains improving community environments.

(Worker-3)

4. Discussion

4.1. Socio-Culture Reshaped by Spatial Morphological Changes

The transformation of physical space is not merely a physical rearrangement but a process of socio-cultural transition. Studying the Jianxi Historic Urban Area reveals that worker communities formed during the planned economy era constructed highly homogenized collective living spaces through closed factory compounds, Soviet-style red houses, and centralized public facilities such as kindergartens and workers’ bathhouses. These spaces were not merely residential containers but material anchors for the working-class identity, embodied in the communal atmosphere of factory cafeterias, the daily bustle of public baths, and the neighborhood exchanges along the corridors of red house communities, which together wove a unique “collective memory”.

The advancement of housing commodification and market-oriented reforms has brought dual outcomes: it has enhanced urban functional completeness and significantly improved the quality of residents’ living spaces, but it also has dismantled the original spatial order. Factory dormitories have been replaced by high-rise commercial residences, public facilities have been privatized or demolished, and commercial property management has dominated urban landscapes. This spatial restructuring has directly eroded residents’ sense of place attachment, fragmenting once-shared collective memories into individualized narratives.

4.2. Challenges in the Revitalization of Historic Urban Areas

Accurately identifying morphological characteristics and socio-cultural transformations in historic urban areas is crucial for understanding the challenges faced during the regeneration process. This study reveals that the legislative progress, planning frameworks, and implementation mechanisms for industrial heritage conservation lag significantly behind the pace of urban development. Consequently, most architecturally and historically significant factories and residential buildings have been demolished. This phenomenon underscores the societal recognition gap regarding the value of industrial heritage, particularly among urban planners and developers.

Currently, the most pressing threat to industrial heritage conservation in the Jianxi Historic Urban Area is the deteriorating conditions of architecturally valuable structures that lack formal heritage designation. Many of these buildings, after years of neglect, are at risk of irreversible damage due to insufficient repair funding. Without urgent intervention, these undocumented yet culturally significant assets risk being erased from the city’s historical narrative.

For residents, the renewal of historical industrial urban areas presents a paradoxical reality: while people acknowledge the significance of historical spaces in reshaping sense of place attachment, they simultaneously express dissatisfaction with current living conditions and wish for modernized housing environments. Reconciling these conflicting priorities—preserving cultural heritage while meeting contemporary demands for urban livability—poses a critical challenge.

4.3. Regeneration Strategies of the Historic Urban Area from the HUL Perspective

The HUL is a comprehensive and holistic perspective that considers the historical and cultural values of cities, material spatial features, and intangible heritage, integrating them into the dynamic urban development process for management and protection. The case study of Luoyang’s Jianxi Historic Urban Area demonstrates that the HUL perspective can help identify the threats and dilemmas faced by the conservation and renewal of Jianxi Historic Urban Area while generating potential strategies for resolution:

First, to achieve the holistic conservation and renewal of urban historic areas, it is essential to establish a detailed and comprehensive survey mechanism, create an information management system, and determine the gradient of urban renewal through heritage value and reuse assessments [73]. Based on the existing Luoyang Historical and Cultural City Protection Plan (2021–2035), a detailed special protection plan should be developed for those valuable buildings not been included in the heritage list, clarifying the protection scope, requirements, and measures. Current urban renewal in the land spatial planning system is problem-oriented, identifying renewal targets and proposing corresponding renewal methods and requirements [74]. However, this approach is often too broad for unique assets such as industrial heritage sites and lacks sufficient binding force. Detailed planning should be formulated based on spatial morphological characteristics to delineate conservation boundaries. In the research on Fuzhou, which serves as an example, the proposed methods involve delineating conservation boundaries and planning controls to revise, improve, and effectively integrate conservation documents with different planning frameworks [75].

Second, in protecting and transmitting the intangible cultural value of industrial heritage, it is crucial to understand its categorical differences [76]. The industrial heritage of Luoyang Jianxi Historic Urban Area is primarily represented by large manufacturing enterprises, whose entrepreneurial spirit of collective striving and shared memories of collective living constitute the core values most central to the regeneration process. The industrial heritage of Lowell in the United States provides a vivid example. Here, through the preservation of historical sites such as textile mills and waterway systems and the implementation of interactive projects like textile machine simulations and laborer experience programs, an immersive historical narrative has been reconstructed. While presenting a picture of industrialized production and social culture, the work deepens cultural identity and establishes an emotional connection with the public.

Third, building a sustainable model for the protection and utilization of historic urban areas requires advocating for the involvement of diverse stakeholders, including the government, community, professionals, and the private sector. Through joint decision-making, this participatory approach aims to balance operational needs with protection and utilization. As part of this process, the government should create open platforms, promote social organization development, and participate in the industrial heritage renewal process through expert interventions and community co-construction [77]. To achieve the sustainable development of cities, it is essential to respect the demands of residents and draw on people-centered urban planning concepts. Examples of this approach include the biophilic urban design and planning concept emphasized by Tim Beatley [78]; the interdisciplinary collaboration advocated by Mahmoudi and Roe for improving public spaces and infrastructure to enhance residents’ well-being [79]; and the valuable urban practices instigated by Gehl in Denmark [80]. Additionally, the channels for funds should be broadened, and the participation of social capital should be attracted (for example, Wuhan City is adopting the PPP model to cooperate with enterprises to establish a protection fund [81]).

4.4. Limitations and Prospects

The explicit advantages of using GIS for land use analysis include its ability to dynamically monitor research subjects and capture their long-term changes. However, this analytical approach has limitations: for instance, it requires high consistency in data standards, including identical classification criteria, spatial resolution, and projection coordinate systems across different years. Discrepancies in these elements may lead to analytical biases if not correctly aligned [82]. Additionally, historical data scarcity poses significant challenges—for instance, incomplete or missing early land-use records in certain regions necessitate reliance on speculative or proxy data for supplementation. Kernel density analysis also has inherent limitations: facility point data gaps (e.g., unregistered small clinics, mobile vendors) or low positional accuracy (e.g., geographically misaligned school addresses) may distort results. Another critical issue is temporal inertia: static kernel density analysis fails to capture dynamic changes, such as newly constructed commercial centers or hospital relocations, requiring real-time data updates. Future research should enhance data accuracy through advanced cleaning techniques, such as employing machine learning to detect and correct outliers via clustering algorithms [83].

In addition, there is considerable uncertainty in current interpretations of research findings—for instance, land-use changes may be driven by multiple interacting factors, including policy interventions, market mechanisms, and natural disasters, making it challenging to attribute outcomes to a single cause. Therefore, future studies should focus on clearly linking driving factors to urban spatial evolution to enhance comprehension of material space [84]. In terms of perceptible space, machine learning methods offer transformative potential for industrial heritage research, shifting the paradigm from data-driven to intelligent decision-making—for example, moving from questionnaire-based statistics to behavioral network mining to improve data collection on public participation [85].

5. Conclusions

A comprehensive understanding of the morphological evolution and socio-cultural changes in historic urban areas is a prerequisite for preserving and renewing historical spaces. This study involves a morphological analysis of the material space and a sociological analysis of the perceptual space in the Jianxi Historic Urban Area and draws the following conclusions:

• Street network stability and accessibility: The overall structure of street networks has remained relatively stable throughout the regeneration process, while the number of roads has expanded, resulting in enhanced spatial accessibility.
• Functional intensification and diversification: Historic urban areas have become more densely populated and functionally diversified, with a significant increase in facility coverage.
• Building replacement and morphological disruption: There are high demolition and reconstruction rates for structures built in the 1950s and 1960s, leading to marked improvements in building quality. However, the continuity of historical morphological units has been disrupted, and the historical character of these areas has been compromised.
• Significant changes in daily life: Institutional changes have led to transformations in spatial construction, causing the disintegration of integrated work and residence, weakening the residents’ collective memory and thus reshaping their place identity.

This research offers three primary contributions and innovations: First, theoretical innovation: this study establishes a comprehensive framework integrating morphological analysis and socio-cultural studies from a Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) perspective. Second, case study innovation: this study presents an in-depth analysis of spatial transformations and their socio-cultural impacts in Chinese industrial heritage urban areas characterized by distinctive regional and cultural attributes. Third, policy innovation: this study proposes integrated conservation and renewal strategies that balance spatial and socio-cultural needs, offering robust practical guidelines for Chinese local governments and urban planners.