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Article

Study on the Performances of PAC-13 Asphalt Mixture Containing Reclaimed Porous Asphalt Pavement

by
Fanlong Tang
1,*,
Jianwei Fan
2,
Tao Ma
2 and
Yinhao Sun
3
1
College of Network and Communication Engineering, Jinling Institute of Technology, Nanjing 211169, China
2
School of Transportation, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China
3
China Railway Construction Urban Construction Transportation Development Co., Ltd., Suzhou 215000, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Buildings 2025, 15(9), 1395; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15091395
Submission received: 4 March 2025 / Revised: 11 April 2025 / Accepted: 19 April 2025 / Published: 22 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Infrastructure Construction and Management)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
In south China, suffering from the rainiest climate, porous asphalt mixtures have been receiving increasing attention. However, with the increase in the application of pavement and the growth of service life, the importance of the recycling application of old reclaimed porous asphalt pavement (RPAP) has gradually become prominent. Based on this, this paper established RPAP content ranging from 0% to 30% in increments of 5% and designed experimental groups with and without regenerating agent to investigate the effects of RAP content and regenerating agent addition on the high-temperature stability, low- and normal-temperature crack resistance, moisture susceptibility, drainage capacity, and mechanical properties of PAC-13 reclaimed porous asphalt mixtures. Subsequently, the practical performance of PAC-13 RPAP was verified through a pavement test. The results indicate that, as the RPAP content increases, the high-temperature stability and mechanical properties of the recycled mixture improve. Specifically, as the planer content is increased to 30%, the dynamic stability of the regenerated porous asphalt increases by 61.1%, and the dynamic modulus at 25 Hz also shows an increase of 25.3%. However, the crack resistance, moisture susceptibility, and drainage capacity at both low temperatures and room temperature exhibited accelerated weakening. When the RPAP content increases to 30%, the reduction in failure strain of regenerated PAC-13 reaches 41.8%, and the reduction in submergence stability reaches 21%. Simultaneously, the water permeability coefficient, void ratio, and interconnected void ratio all demonstrate significant reductions of 23.5%, 6.5%, and 10.0%, respectively, indicating a diminished drainage capacity in the recycled porous pavement mixture. Then again, with the addition of the regenerant, the high-temperature stability of the regenerated porous mixture is reduced by 10.8%, and the mechanical properties are reduced by 6.48%, while the crack resistance at low temperature and room temperature, moisture susceptibility, and drainage ability are enhanced. The verification results of the test section demonstrate the feasibility of utilizing reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) material in the porous asphalt mixture. Additionally, it is recommended to select RAP material with a particle size of 4.75 mm or larger while ensuring that the proportion of RAP does not exceed 20%. The research findings of this paper are anticipated to offer guidance for the preparation of PAC-13 reclaimed porous asphalt mixtures while facilitating the recycling and large-scale utilization of old porous pavement materials.

1. Introduction

Porous asphalt pavement features a high interconnected void ratio, which can effectively eliminate pavement water. This reduces the thickness of the water film on the road surface during rainfall and mitigates the risk of vehicle hydroplaning and water mist interference, thereby enhancing driving safety. Additionally, it possesses noise reduction capabilities [1,2,3]. In recent years, some of the porous asphalt pavements constructed in the early stages have exhibited signs of aging and blockage, necessitating timely milling and resurfacing. Regeneration technology can efficiently utilize old and deteriorated materials, offering the benefits of conserving new resources and minimizing environmental pollution. There is a higher concentration of high-viscosity asphalt in RPAP, making it particularly valuable for use in reclaimed porous asphalt mixtures compared to conventional asphalt mixtures [4,5].
Existing scholars have conducted research on utilizing RAP materials from porous asphalt pavement to produce reclaimed porous asphalt mixtures. Xu [6] previously confirmed the feasibility of preparing a reclaimed OGFC-13 mixture using an aged OGFC-13 porous asphalt mixture. The study evaluated the stability, high-temperature and low-temperature performance, and moisture susceptibility of the reclaimed mixture. However, the aged mixture used was prepared through laboratory tests, which may not fully represent the real-world characteristics of RPAP. Zhang [7] explored the mechanical behavior of reclaimed asphalt pavement materials under the design of multiple parameters, including blending time, aggregate gradation, preheating temperature of RAP, and compaction effort. Wang [8] highlighted that incorporating lignin fiber enhances the low-temperature performance of reclaimed porous asphalt mixtures. Zhang [9] evaluated the effect of design parameters on the degree of blending and performance of recycled HMAs incorporating fine RAP particles and found that the recycled HMAs incorporating fine RAP particles under the traditional design proved to have risks in moisture susceptibility and low-temperature performance. These findings provide a better guidance for the design of RAP materials.
Meanwhile, researchers have investigated the effects of RAP content on the performance of recycled asphalt mixtures. Ranieri [10] revealed that the incorporation of RAP resulted in a reduced void ratio, moisture susceptibility, and permeability of reclaimed porous asphalt mixtures. To address these limitations, a method containing one WMA additive was proposed to enhance the performance of the recycled mixtures. However, the research exclusively evaluated the effectiveness under a RAP content of 10%. Siala [11] proposed a reclaimed porous asphalt mixture incorporating a 40% RAP content, requiring the addition of 10% dune sand and 1% lime. However, the study only verified that the mechanical properties of the mixture met the specifications without validating its low-temperature performance or moisture susceptibility. Hu [12] and Xiang [13] both utilized reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) material to prepare recycled permeable asphalt mixtures, with the RAP content ranging from 20% to 40%. Bao [14] selected 4.75 mm to 9.5 mm coarse aggregate from OGFC-13 RAP material and used it in the preparation of reclaimed porous asphalt mixtures with a maximum content of 45%. The study investigated the effects of varying RAP material content on the high-temperature stability, moisture susceptibility, air voids, and water permeability of the reclaimed drainage mixture. Yang [15] demonstrated that reclaimed asphalt mixtures with a RAP content exceeding 30% exhibited inferior skid resistance and durability. Meanwhile, other scholars [16] have proposed that increasing the preheating temperature of RAP could maximize the rutting resistance of reclaimed asphalt mixtures. Li [17] suggested that reclaimed asphalt mixtures containing a high reclaimed asphalt pavement content often exhibit compromised resistance to low-temperature cracking. Additionally, optimizing RAP processing and mixing procedures was proposed to increase the RAP content by 10%. Wang [18] assessed multi-performances (moisture susceptibility, low-temperature, high-temperature, fatigue) of reclaimed warm mix asphalt (RWMA) mixtures prepared with various design components, i.e., RAP contents (50% and 70%) and gradation (AC-13 and AC-16). It was found that increasing the RAP content reduces the water damage resistance and low-temperature performance of RWMA mixtures.
In summary, the research on utilizing RAP to produce reclaimed porous asphalt mixtures has achieved significant maturity, with multiple strategies proposed to enhance their performance, such as incorporating lignin fibers, dune sand, and lime. Furthermore, the influence of RAP content on the properties of reclaimed porous asphalt mixtures has been extensively investigated. For instance, an elevated RAP content may lead to diminished low-temperature performance and moisture susceptibility, yet these challenges can be mitigated through optimized construction processes, incorporating rejuvenators, or elevating RAP preheating temperature. However, limited research has focused on the microstructural characteristics of RAP materials from aged porous asphalt pavements. Existing studies predominantly analyze the isolated effects of RAP content on singular properties of recycled mixtures, while a comprehensive evaluation of how varying the RAP content influences the multi-dimensional performance of recycled porous asphalt mixtures under the inclusion of regenerant remains lacking. This knowledge gap renders the current findings insufficient to provide actionable guidance for practical construction practices, hindering the broader application of recycled porous asphalt mixtures in real-world production. To address these gaps, this paper systematically investigates the effects of RAP content (ranging from 0% to 30%) and the incorporation of regenerant on the performance of reclaimed PAC-13 porous asphalt mixtures. Experimental groups with and without regenerant are designed to evaluate critical pavement performance indicators, including high-temperature stability, low-temperature cracking resistance, moisture susceptibility, drainage capacity, and mechanical properties. The findings are expected to provide actionable guidelines for formulating reclaimed PAC-13 porous asphalt mixtures incorporating RPAD, thereby advancing the recycling and large-scale utilization of reclaimed porous pavement materials.

2. Materials

2.1. RAP Materials and Regenerant

The RAP material utilized originated from the upper layer of the Guangji expressway in Jiangxi Province, China. The original pavement was paved in October 2018, and some of the porous asphalt pavement constructed in the early stage has exhibited signs of aging and blockage. The mixture type is PAC-13, the aggregate used is basalt, and the oilstone ratio is 4.7%. An extraction test was conducted, and the coarse aggregate components with a particle size exceeding 4.75 mm were selected from the RAP material to evaluate the relevant performance indicators of both the aggregate and high-viscosity asphalt; the findings are presented in Table 1 and Table 2. The tables additionally incorporate the index requirements for aggregate and high-viscosity asphalt utilized in porous asphalt mixtures, as specified in the ‘Technical Specification for Design and Construction of Porous Asphalt Pavement’ [19].
As shown in the above tables, it is evident that all indices of coarse aggregates with a particle size exceeding 4.75 mm in RAP materials comply with the specifications for new aggregates. However, the needle penetration and elongation properties of high-viscosity asphalt fail to meet the specified requirements, attributed to the prolonged aging effect under load and environmental conditions. Therefore, the regenerant was chosen to enhance the performance of aged high-viscosity asphalt. The selected regenerant was self-developed LAR-1, and its main technical indexes were a saturates content less than 30%, an aromatics content more than 50%, a viscosity of 135 MP at 60 °C, a density of 1.01 at 15 °C, and a flash point of 220 °C. This complies with the RA5 standard specified in the ‘Technical Specification for Highway Asphalt Pavement Regeneration’ [20].

2.2. Virgin Asphalt Mixture

The virgin asphalt mixture consisted of basalt aggregate and limestone ore powder, while the bitumen was high-viscosity asphalt. The properties are detailed in Table 3 and Table 4, and all comply with the relevant requirements specified in the ‘Technical Specifications for Design and Construction of Porous Asphalt Pavement’ [19].

2.3. Regenerated Mixture Preparation

In the newly prepared PAC-13 recycled porous asphalt mixture, the proportion of RAP material in total mass was 0%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30%. For the 10% RAP content, two groups were established: one with regenerant and the other without (following statement 10% (none)). The remaining proportions were all added regenerant. In each group containing a regenerant, the regenerant content constituted 7% of the aged asphalt content in the RAP material. The mixtures were designated as 0%, 10% (no regenerant), 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30% across seven groups.
During prolonged use, numerous blockages can occur in the interstices of porous asphalt pavements that are mainly characterized by small particle sizes. This condition is detrimental to the performance of recycled porous asphalt mixtures [21,22,23,24]. Therefore, as described in Section 2.1, only the coarse aggregate with a particle size greater than 4.75 mm in RAP material was selected, and the target gradation of the recycled mixture is shown in Table 5. In the laboratory test, the RAP material was blended with virgin aggregate and regenerator in a mixing pot at 160 °C for 90 s, followed by the addition of virgin viscous asphalt, which was also mixed for 90 s, and finally, the mineral powder was incorporated and mixed for an additional 90 s.
According to the Technical Code for Design and Construction of Drained Asphalt Pavement [19], the optimum asphalt-to-aggregate ratio test was carried out. The results indicated that the optimal asphalt-to-aggregate ratio for the recycled PAC-13 mixtures containing 0%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30% were 4.7%, 4.8%, 5.0%, 5.2%, 5.4%, and 5.5%. This can be attributed to the fact that, as the RAP content increases, the proportion of aged asphalt in the RAP that is compatible with the new asphalt decreases significantly. Consequently, despite the overall increase in asphalt content, the ratio of newly added asphalt to the total mass of aged asphalt decreases.

3. Experimental Set-Up

In this paper, various macro-performance tests, as shown in Table 6, were carried out for the prepared reclaimed PAC-13 porous asphalt mixture.

4. Results and Discussion

Before milling the old porous asphalt pavement, core sampling was conducted first, and specimens for scanning electron microscopy were prepared to observe the interfacial adhesion state between the aggregates and the high-viscosity asphalt in the old pavement at magnifications of 1000 times and 3000 times. For the prepared groups with 0%, 10%, 10% without regenerant, 20%, and 30% of recycled PAC-13 mixtures [27,28,29], various properties, such as high-temperature stability, low-temperature crack resistance, normal-temperature crack resistance, moisture susceptibility, drainage capacity, and mechanical properties, were tested.

4.1. Adhesive State of Used Material

Before milling, cores were taken from the old pavement, and specimens for the scanning electron microscope were prepared by cutting the core samples [30,31]. The SEM images obtained at magnifications of 1000 times and 3000 times are shown in Figure 1.
It can be seen that the interface between the aggregates and the high-viscosity asphalt in the old porous asphalt mixture is clearly visible. The interface morphology is basically intact, and no obvious detachment or voids are observed, indicating that the adhesion state between them is well and is beneficial for guaranteeing the various properties of the prepared regenerated porous asphalt mixture.

4.2. High-Temperature Stability

The rutting test was conducted to analyze the high-temperature stability of the recycled PAC-13 mixture, and the results are shown in Figure 2.
According to Figure 2, it can be observed that, with the increase in RAP content, the high-temperature stability of the recycled mixture significantly enhances. Compared to the PAC-13 mixture without RAP, the dynamic stability of the recycled PAC-13 with 20% RAP increases by 42.7%, and that of the recycled PAC-13 with 30% RAP increases by 61.1%. It is evident that the incorporation of RAP materials is advantageous for the high-temperature rut resistance of the reclaimed porous mixture [32]. The reason lies in that, due to long-term oxidation and aging, volatilization of light components, and an increase in asphaltene content, there is a significant increase in viscosity and hardness in the old asphalt in RAP. After the addition of RAP, the mixture tends to be harder and more viscous overall. The hardened asphalt has a higher softening point at high temperature and enhanced shear deformation resistance, which directly improves the ability of the mixture to resist high-temperature deformation problems such as rutting resistance.
Due to the softening effect of the regenerant on the aged and highly viscous asphalt in the RAP material, the addition of the regenerant has a negative influence on the high-temperature anti-rutting performance of the reclaimed porous mixture. For the recycled mixture with 10% RAP materials, the dynamic stability of the mixture declined by 10.8% after the addition of the regenerant. According to the requirements in the Technical Specification for Design and Construction of Porous Asphalt Pavement that the dynamic stability of the porous asphalt mixture should not be less than 5000 times, the high-temperature performance of the reclaimed porous mixture with the addition of the regenerant is still significantly higher than that specified. To sum up, the high-temperature stability is obviously easy to be satisfied, and therefore, it is not the main control index of the reclaimed porous mixture.

4.3. Low- and Normal-Temperature Crack Resistance

The flexural tests were carried out to analyze the low-temperature crack resistance of the recycled PAC-13 mixture. The flexural tensile strength, failure strain, and flexural stiffness modulus were tested [33,34,35], and the results are shown in Figure 3.
Evidently, as the content of RAP rises, both the flexural tensile strength and the bending stiffness modulus of the recycled mixture increase. However, the increase extent of the former is smaller than that of the latter. Consequently, the failure strain decreases, and the low-temperature crack resistance drops significantly. In contrast to the PAC-13 mixture without the addition of RAP materials, when the content of RAP was increased from 10% to 30%, the flexural tensile strength of the recycled PAC-13 mixture rose from 4.8% to 21.3%, and the decrease in the failure strain climbed from 20.2% to 41.8%. According to the ‘Technical Specifications for Design and Construction of Porous Asphalt Pavement’, the low-temperature cracking is controlled by strain, and it is required that the failure strain of the porous asphalt mixture in the winter mild zone and winter cold zone should not be less than 2500 μ. Therefore, the recycled drainage mixture prepared can only meet this requirement when the content of RAP materials is less than 20%.
Further, semi-circular bending tests were carried out to measure the tensile strength and analyze the normal-temperature crack resistance of the recycled PAC-13 mixture. The results are presented in Figure 4.
With the content of RAP materials increasing from 0% to 30%, the semi-circular bending tensile strength of the recycled mixture decreased by 28.0%, suggesting that its crack resistance at normal temperature decreased accordingly. This trend is in accordance with the variation trend of low-temperature crack resistance reflected by the failure strain. The cause for the reduction in the crack resistance at low and normal temperatures lies in that the aging of the old asphalt in RAP materials causes the recycled high-viscosity asphalt to transform from ductile to brittle, resulting in a decrease in the deformation capacity under stress. The cracking process of the mixture at low or normal temperatures is strain-controlled. The reduction in the deformation capacity directly leads to the strain on the asphalt being greater than its critical strain for cracking, thereby reducing the crack resistance. On the other hand, with the increase in the usage of RAP, the impact of the old asphalt in RAP on the performance of the recycled mixture keeps growing, and there are weaker interfaces in contact between the virgin and old materials in the recycled mixture. Therefore, the reduction rates of both the low-temperature failure strain and the tensile strength at normal temperature exhibit an accelerating trend, which leads to the accelerated deterioration of the crack resistance of the recycled drainage mixture.
As mentioned in Section 4.2, the regenerant has a softening effect on the aged high-viscosity asphalt in RAP, enhancing its rheological performance. Therefore, as can be seen from Figure 3 and Figure 4, after adding the regenerant at a 10% content of RAP materials, the failure strain measured in the low-temperature bending test increased by 11.0%, and the tensile strength measured in the semi-circular bending tensile test increased by 6.5%, indicating that the regenerant has a positive influence on the low-temperature and normal-temperature crack resistance of the recycled drainage mixture.

4.4. Moisture Susceptibility

The submerged Marshall test, freeze–thaw split test, Kentucky scatter test, and submerged Kentucky scatter test were carried out to measure the residual stability after immersion, the ratio of tensile strength after freeze–thaw splitting to that before splitting, the mass loss of dispersion, and the mass loss of dispersion after immersion, respectively, so as to investigate the moisture susceptibility of the reclaimed porous asphalt mixture [36,37,38,39]. The test results are shown in Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7.
It can be observed from the above figures that, as the proportion of the RAP material increased from 0% to 30%, the reduction in the water immersion stability of the reclaimed porous asphalt mixture reached 21.1%, and the reduction in the stability was 16.6%. It is evident that the reduction in the water immersion stability was significantly greater than that of the stability, thus resulting in a 5.4% decrease in the residual stability. The decrease in the freeze–thaw splitting strength reached 21.4%, while that of the splitting strength was merely 15.3%, thereby a 7.2% drop in the ratio of freeze–thaw splitting strength. Furthermore, as the content of the RAP material increased from 0% to 30%, the mass loss of scatter and mass loss of scatter in water rose by 69.7% and 77.1%, respectively. All the above-mentioned phenomena suggest that the moisture susceptibility of the recycled PAC-13 mixture declines with the increase in the content of the RAP material.
The cause lies in that, after long-term aging, the adhesion between the aggregates and the high-viscosity asphalt in RAP is reduced, and the adhesion at the interfaces between the aged asphalt and the virgin aggregates as well as between the virgin asphalt and the aged asphalt is equally unsatisfactory. After immersion in water, the interfaces are more prone to damage, and the adhesion within the recycled PAC-13 mixture decreases more significantly compared to the new mixture, thereby resulting in its moisture susceptibility being lower than that of the new mixture.

4.5. Platform Advantages

Permeability tests and void ratio experiments were carried out to respectively measure the permeability, void ratio, and connected void ratio of the recycled drainage mixture, and the ratio between the connected void ratio and the void ratio was calculated. The results are shown in Figure 8 and Figure 9.
It is observable that, after the content of the RAP increased from 0% to 30%, the permeability coefficient, void ratio, and connected void ratio of the PAC-13 recycled mixture all decrease significantly, with the reduction rates being 23.5%, 6.5%, and 10.0%, respectively. This indicates a reduction in the drainage capacity of the reclaimed porous asphalt mixture. The reduction in the connected void ratio is nearly twice that of the void ratio, suggesting that the connected void ratio, which is directly related to the drainage capacity, decays more rapidly and is more detrimental to drainage. It is hypothesized that the reason lies in the relatively poor quality uniformity of the RAP material. During the sample preparation process, it is more prone to concentrate and agglomerate, which is not conducive to the formation of the connected void structure. According to the ‘Technical Specification for Design and Construction of Porous Asphalt Pavement’, it is stipulated that the permeability coefficient of the drainage mixture should be no less than 5000 mL/min. Evidently, when the content of the RAP material is 30%, the drainage capacity of the prepared PAC-13 recycled drainage mixture fails to meet the requirements.
For the reclaimed porous asphalt mixture with a 10% content of RAP material, the permeability coefficient increased by 5.3% after the addition of regenerant, the void ratio and the connected void ratio increased by 1.0% and 1.8%, respectively, and the drainage capacity was enhanced. The reason lies in that the addition of the regenerant enhances the compatibility between the virgin and old asphalt, reduces the agglomeration characteristics of the old material in the recycled mixture, improves the internal uniformity of the recycled mixture, and, thereby, facilitates the formation of the connected void structure.

4.6. Mechanical Property

Dynamic modulus tests were carried out at 20 °C. The uniaxial compressive dynamic modulus of the recycled drainage mixture was tested at a total of six loading frequencies of 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, and 25 Hz [40,41]. The results are shown in Figure 10.
It is evident that, as the content of the RAP material increases, the dynamic modulus of the reclaimed porous asphalt mixture rises, indicating an enhancement in mechanical performance. The underlying cause lies in the fact that the high-viscosity asphalt in the RAP material has undergone full aging, and its mechanical performance properties have significantly improved compared to the new high-viscosity asphalt. When applied in the preparation of the PAC-13 recycled mixture, it is conducive to strengthening the overall stiffness of the mixture. After the addition of the regenerant, due to the softening effect of the rejuvenating agent on the aged asphalt, the dynamic modulus of the recycled drainage mixture decreases, and the mechanical properties slightly deteriorate.

5. Case Study

Based on the above test results, a test section of PAC-13 single-layer porous asphalt pavement was constructed in Guangji, Jiangxi Province, China, as part of a scientific research project. Core sampling and on-site water seepage tests were conducted on the test section to evaluate its paving quality and drainage performance.

5.1. Case Project Overview

The project was situated in Jiangxi Province, China, a region characterized by a subtropical monsoon climate. This area experiences abundant precipitation throughout the year, making it one of the most rain-prone provinces in China. The annual average rainfall ranges from 1400 to 1900 mm, with significant seasonal variation, particularly concentrated from April to June. Based on the characteristics of summer rainfall in this region and the primary section of the project, the PAC-13 single-layer porous asphalt pavement was chosen for the test road. The pavement structure is illustrated in Figure 11.
The test road, measuring a total length of 375 m, was situated at the on-ramp on the right side of the main line. It featured a 4 cm single-layer porous asphalt pavement, while the lower layer adhered to the original structural design of the section.

5.2. Mixture Parameters

Based on the experimental results presented in the previous section, the RAP content was determined to be 20%, with the regenerant content set at 7% of the aged asphalt content in the reclaimed material. SBS-modified virgin asphalt was supplied by China Railway Construction Urban Construction Transportation Development Co., Ltd., while the high-viscosity modifier AR-HVA was provided by National Road High-Tech Engineering and Technology Research Institute Co., Ltd. Hot mixture screening was carried out on the engineering materials used in the test road, and the proportion was adjusted according to the target grade. The results of the hot mixture screening and grading adjustment are presented in Table 7.
According to the requirements of the ‘Technical Specification for Highway Asphalt Pavement Construction’ (JTG-F40-2017), the optimal asphalt-to-aggregate ratio for the target mix design as well as the contents with ±0.3% asphalt were selected for contrast. Through the laboratory tests of dispersion, leakage analysis, and stability, the optimal asphalt-to-aggregate ratio suitable for actual production was determined to be 5.2%.

5.3. Performance Evaluation of Test Section

In the construction process, the hot asphalt mixture was randomly sampled and tested for indoor molding, and the results are shown in Table 8.
It can be seen in Table 8 that the mixture of this test can meet the requirements of the porous asphalt pavement code. After the construction was completed, a core sample was drilled on the single-layer porous asphalt road surface of the west and east ramp. The void ratio of the core sample was detected, and results are shown in Table 9.
As illustrated in Table 9, all the indicators for this test section comply with the specification requirements and design expectations. Upon completion of the test road paving, seepage tests were conducted at three distinct locations on the permeable asphalt pavement using the construction party’s seepage meter. The test results are presented in Table 10 and Figure 12.
The measured permeability coefficients of the porous asphalt pavement on-site all met the specification requirement of not less than 5000 mL/min. The road surface condition after a rainy day is presented in Figure 12c. It can be observed that there is basically no accumulated water on the surface of the drainage test section, and its appearance is not significantly different from that in sunny weather. On the contrary, there are obvious water accumulations on the surface of the main line, with distinct reflections. Generally, this test section exhibits superior permeability performance, verifying the feasibility of using 20% RAP materials in PAC-13 porous asphalt mixtures.

6. Conclusions

In order to understand whether the porous asphalt pavement RAP can be incorporated into recycled PAC-13 porous asphalt mixtures, various macro-performance tests were performed, and a case study was performed on a test pavement. The parameters of each test as well as the drainage performance of the completed test pavement are satisfactory. From the findings summarized above, the conclusions are as follows:
(1) The increased RAP material content positively contributes to the high-temperature stability and mechanical properties of recycled porous mixtures. Specifically, elevating the RAP content from 0% to 10% and 20% enhances high-temperature stability by 21.4% and 42.7%, respectively, while the dynamic modulus at 25 Hz increases by 7.4% and 18.5%. This improvement is attributed to the aged asphalt in the RAP, which reduces the rheological susceptibility of the recycled mixture, effectively suppressing rutting formation under elevated temperatures. Furthermore, the volatilization of light components and reorganization of colloidal structures during asphalt aging promote the development of densified colloidal clusters, thereby strengthening deformation resistance.
(2) The incorporation of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) negatively impacts the low-temperature crack resistance, moisture susceptibility, and drainage capacity of recycled porous asphalt mixtures. Specifically, as the RAP content increased from 0% to 10% and 20%, the failure strain decreased by 20.1% and 30.4%, the immersion stability declined by 6.2% and 11.5%, and the permeability coefficient dropped by 6.5% and 14.8%, respectively. This phenomenon is attributed to the oxidative aging of the aged binder in the RAP, which generates polar functional groups. These groups enhance hydrophilicity, weakening the adhesion capacity between aged and virgin aggregates. Consequently, water molecules preferentially intrude into the interfacial zones and cause peeling. Additionally, fine particles in RAP are prone to clogging the interconnected pores of the mixture during compaction, thereby reducing the effective porosity and consequently impairing drainage capacity.
(3) The addition of regenerant slightly reduces the high-temperature stability and mechanical performance of recycled porous asphalt mixtures but significantly enhances their low-temperature crack resistance, moisture susceptibility, and drainage capacity. This is because the aromatic fractions in the regenerant effectively replenish the lost light components in aged high-viscosity asphalt, improving its rheological properties. Additionally, the incorporation of regenerant enhances the compatibility between aged and virgin asphalt, reduces the agglomeration tendency of recycled materials during mixing, improves the homogeneity within the recycled porous asphalt mixture, and, thereby, facilitates the formation of an interconnected void structure.
(4) In conjunction with the test pavement, the feasibility of utilizing RPAP in PAC-13 permeable asphalt concrete mixtures was validated. It is recommended to select RAP materials composition with a particle size greater than 4.75 mm, where the content does not exceed 20%, and regenerant is added. While the high-temperature performance of the recycled permeable mixture can be easily achieved, particular attention should be paid to crack resistance, moisture susceptibility, and drainage capability at low and normal temperatures, especially in the north of China with sub-zero temperatures all year round.
(5) This article focused on examining the impact of these factors, high-temperature stability, low-temperature and room-temperature crack resistance, moisture susceptibility, and drainage capacity on the road performance of reclaimed PAC-13 porous asphalt mixtures. However, the regenerant plays a crucial role in the regeneration process. The test results presented in this paper clearly indicate that the addition of regenerant significantly impacts the properties of the mixture. Consequently, the influence of the type and dosage of regenerant on the performance of drained asphalt mixtures should be thoroughly investigated in future studies.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.T. and J.F.; methodology, F.T.; software, F.T.; validation, J.F. and T.M.; formal analysis, F.T.; investigation, J.F.; resources, Y.S.; data curation, Y.S.; writing—original draft preparation, F.T.; writing—review and editing, F.T.; visualization, T.M.; supervision, T.M.; project administration, Y.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

We received financial support from the Jinling Institute of Technology (Grant No. jit-b-202401), Xizang Autonomous Region Science and Technology Funding (No. XZ202501JX0006), National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52378445), and Jiangsu Province Excellent postdoctoral program funded project (2023ZB519).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Yinhao Sun is employed by the China Railway Construction Urban Construction Transportation Development Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. SEM images (3000 and 1000 times) of the interface of the old drainage mixture.
Figure 1. SEM images (3000 and 1000 times) of the interface of the old drainage mixture.
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Figure 2. The dynamic stability of the recycled PAC-13 mixture.
Figure 2. The dynamic stability of the recycled PAC-13 mixture.
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Figure 3. Low-temperature crack resistance of the reclaimed PAC-13 mixture.
Figure 3. Low-temperature crack resistance of the reclaimed PAC-13 mixture.
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Figure 4. Tensile strength of semi-circular bending test for recycled PAC-13 mixture.
Figure 4. Tensile strength of semi-circular bending test for recycled PAC-13 mixture.
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Figure 5. The results of the water-soaked Marshall test for the reclaimed PAC-13 mixture.
Figure 5. The results of the water-soaked Marshall test for the reclaimed PAC-13 mixture.
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Figure 6. The results of freeze–thaw split tensile tests on reclaimed PAC-13 mixture.
Figure 6. The results of freeze–thaw split tensile tests on reclaimed PAC-13 mixture.
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Figure 7. Loss of dispersed quality of reclaimed PAC-13 mixture.
Figure 7. Loss of dispersed quality of reclaimed PAC-13 mixture.
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Figure 8. The permeability coefficient of recycled PAC-13 mixture.
Figure 8. The permeability coefficient of recycled PAC-13 mixture.
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Figure 9. Void ratio and connected void ratio of recycled PAC-13 mixture.
Figure 9. Void ratio and connected void ratio of recycled PAC-13 mixture.
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Figure 10. Dynamic modulus of reclaimed PAC-13 mixture.
Figure 10. Dynamic modulus of reclaimed PAC-13 mixture.
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Figure 11. The test pavement with PAC-13 single-layer structure in GuangJi highway.
Figure 11. The test pavement with PAC-13 single-layer structure in GuangJi highway.
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Figure 12. The road surface of the test section by using 20% RAP materials after completion.
Figure 12. The road surface of the test section by using 20% RAP materials after completion.
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Table 1. Index of aggregate in RAP material.
Table 1. Index of aggregate in RAP material.
ItemCrush Value (%)Los Angeles Wear Value (%)Needle Content (%)
Measured value13.915.63.4
Specification requirement≤18≤20≤10
Table 2. Index of high-viscosity asphalt in RAP material.
Table 2. Index of high-viscosity asphalt in RAP material.
ItemNeedle Penetration (0.1 mm)5 °C Ductility (cm)Softening Point (°C)60 °C Dynamic Viscosity (Pa·s)
Measured value25.720.991.078,128
Specification requirement≥40≥30≥80≥50,000
Table 3. Index of new aggregate.
Table 3. Index of new aggregate.
ItemCrush Value (%)Los Angeles Wear Value (%)Needle Flake Content (%)Water Absorption (%)<0.075 mm Content (%)Sand Equivalent (%)Silt Content (%)Moisture Content (%)
Coarse aggregate7.18.6 0.780.45---
Fine aggregate-----68.70.85-
Mineral powder-------0.33
Specification requirement≤18≤20≤10≤2≤1≥60≤3≤1
Table 4. Related indexes of new high-viscosity asphalt.
Table 4. Related indexes of new high-viscosity asphalt.
ItemNeedle Penetration (0.1 mm)5 °C Ductility (cm)Softening Point (°C)60 °C Dynamic Viscosity (Pa·s)
Measured value48.768.483.5112,523
Specification requirement≥40≥30≥80≥50,000
Table 5. Target gradation of recycled PAC-13 mixture.
Table 5. Target gradation of recycled PAC-13 mixture.
Particle size (mm)1613.29.54.752.361.180.60.30.150.075
Through rate (%)10092.552.418.816.210.98.46.85.94.6
Table 6. Performance test of regenerated PAC-13 mixture.
Table 6. Performance test of regenerated PAC-13 mixture.
Test ItemTest IndexPerformance CharacterizationTest Basis
Rutting testDynamic stabilityHigh-temperature stabilityJTG/T 3350-03-2020 [25]
Bending testFlexural tensile strength, failure strain, bending stiffness modulusLow-temperature cracking resistanceJTG/T 3350-03-2020
Semi-circle bending testTensile strengthResistance to cracking at room temperatureJTG/T 5521-2019 [26]
Freeze–thaw splitting testFreeze–thaw splitting tensile strength ratioMoisture susceptibilityJTG/T 3350-03-2020
Immersion Marshall testResidual stability of immersion
Fort Kenta flight testLoss of flying mass
Waterlogged Fort Kenta flying testLoss of mass by immersion
Seepage testSeepage coefficientDrainage capacityJTG/T 3350-03-2020
Void ratio testVoidage, interconnecting voidage
Dynamic modulus test of uniaxial compressionDynamic modulusMechanical propertyJTG/T 3350-03-2020
Table 7. PAC-13 hot mixture screening and grading adjustment results.
Table 7. PAC-13 hot mixture screening and grading adjustment results.
Aggregate Specification (mm)11–165–110–3Mineral PowderSynthetic Grading
Blending ratio (%)4538.5124.5100
19100 100 100 100 100.0
16100100.0100.0100 100.0
13.294.0100.0100.0100 97.3
9.512.089.8100.0100 56.5
4.750.24.999.3100 18.4
2.360.20.189.9100 15.4
1.180.20.166.2100 12.5
0.60.20.149.8100 10.6
0.30.20.128.1100 8.0
0.150.20.117.597.06.6
0.0750.20.14.486.04.5
Table 8. Test results of porous asphalt mixture.
Table 8. Test results of porous asphalt mixture.
Technical IndexPAC-13Technical Requirement
Relative density of gross volume2.030
Maximum theoretical relative density2.636
Void ratio (%)23.218–25
Connected void ratio (%)20.6
Stability (kN)6.67≥5.0
Flight loss (%)13.91<15
Leaky loss (%)0.43<0.5
Table 9. Test results of single-layer drained asphalt pavement core sample.
Table 9. Test results of single-layer drained asphalt pavement core sample.
Technical IndexWest CoreEast CoreMean Value
Airborne weight (g)663.86653.71658.79
Submerged weight (g)396.22388.84392.53
Average thickness (cm)4.284.154.22
Core diameter (cm)9.799.79
Relative density of gross volume2.0612.0922.077
Degree of compaction (%)98.499.999.2
Void ratio (%)21.820.621.2
Connected void ratio (%)16.915.216.1
Table 10. Water permeability coefficient test results (mL/min).
Table 10. Water permeability coefficient test results (mL/min).
Test SectionTest 1Test 2Test 3Mean Value
Reclaimed PAC-13 porous asphalt pavement5449531451375300
5942561755205693
5557549956825579
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Tang, F.; Fan, J.; Ma, T.; Sun, Y. Study on the Performances of PAC-13 Asphalt Mixture Containing Reclaimed Porous Asphalt Pavement. Buildings 2025, 15, 1395. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15091395

AMA Style

Tang F, Fan J, Ma T, Sun Y. Study on the Performances of PAC-13 Asphalt Mixture Containing Reclaimed Porous Asphalt Pavement. Buildings. 2025; 15(9):1395. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15091395

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tang, Fanlong, Jianwei Fan, Tao Ma, and Yinhao Sun. 2025. "Study on the Performances of PAC-13 Asphalt Mixture Containing Reclaimed Porous Asphalt Pavement" Buildings 15, no. 9: 1395. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15091395

APA Style

Tang, F., Fan, J., Ma, T., & Sun, Y. (2025). Study on the Performances of PAC-13 Asphalt Mixture Containing Reclaimed Porous Asphalt Pavement. Buildings, 15(9), 1395. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15091395

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