Coexistence of Tradition and Modernity for Cultural Sustainability: The Teochew Opera Approach in Malaysia
Department of Music, Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia—UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
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Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Arts 2025, 14(5), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/arts14050110
Submission received: 28 July 2025
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Revised: 3 September 2025
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Accepted: 9 September 2025
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Published: 12 September 2025
Abstract
Traditional cultural practices, increasingly impacted by modernisation and urbanisation, are experiencing diminished transmission and declining interest among younger generations. Teochew opera in Malaysia is no exception, pressured under similar challenges in sustaining its relevance and appeal within contemporary society. Considering these shifts, the sustainable preservation and revitalisation of traditional arts has become a pressing concern for scholars and cultural practitioners alike. This study investigates strategies for sustaining Teochew opera in Malaysia, employing qualitative methods including participant observation and semi-structured interviews. The findings reveal that Teochew opera operates within a sacred and secular framework, serving religious rituals and cultural festivals. This duality allows for continuity through tradition in sacred settings and adaptation through innovation in secular contexts. The coexistence of these realms offers a blueprint for sustainable cultural evolution. While challenges such as low youth engagement and limited institutional support persist, the research underscores the potential of educational initiatives and community-driven efforts to renew interest and ensure continuity. The study contributes valuable insights for policymakers and cultural stakeholders seeking to safeguard intangible cultural heritage in pluralistic, rapidly modernising societies.
1. Introduction
1.1. Research Background
Teochew opera represents a distinctive and vibrant form of traditional Chinese opera, which combines singing, instrumental music, dialogue, theatre, and martial arts in a narrative style. Its musicality is exemplified by its high-pitched singing, typically accompanied by traditional Chinese instruments such as the yehu, yangqin, gongs, and drums. The narratives presented in its performances are deeply rooted in historical tales, folklore, and moral stories, reflecting Chinese cultural values and social norms (Wu 2015). Teochew opera originated in the Ming Dynasty in China. Throughout the centuries, it has evolved, successfully maintaining its traditional essence while simultaneously adapting to the diverse social environments into which the Chinese populace has migrated, such as Malaysia (Tan and Fernandez 2023). In this multicultural context, interactions among various ethnic communities have catalysed unique cultural expressions, allowing it to develop amidst a tapestry of diverse artistic influences.
The historical migration of Teochew-speaking Chinese individuals to Malaysia during the 19th and early 20th centuries laid the critical foundation for establishing Teochew opera in the region (Lai 1993). This migration was a component of a broader diasporic movement among the Chinese community throughout Southeast Asia, primarily motivated by the pursuit of economic opportunities and improved living conditions. As these communities settled in Malaysia, they carried cherished cultural practices, with this opera rapidly embedding itself within their new environments’ social and cultural fabric.
Over the decades, Teochew opera in Malaysia has experienced significant growth, buoyed by a vibrant community dedicated to its preservation and promotion. While remaining true to its traditional character, the opera has dynamically adapted by incorporating various elements from the local culture. This adaptability has ensured its continued relevance and appeal as it responds to the changing expectations of contemporary audiences (Wu 2015). The maintenance of Teochew opera in the Malaysian cultural landscape exemplifies the resilience of this traditional art form, demonstrating its capacity to sustain itself even in the face of modernisation and globalisation.
1.2. Literature Review
The interplay between tradition and modernity in sustaining traditional performing arts has attracted increasing scholarly attention, particularly within the conceptual frameworks of cultural resilience and sustainability. In the case of Teochew opera in China, revitalisation has largely occurred through top-down institutional mechanisms, including its inscription as national intangible cultural heritage, state subsidies, and integration into educational and tourism platforms (Wang 2007; Zeng 2015; Zhu 2020). These interventions have undoubtedly enhanced the opera’s visibility and facilitated its transmission. However, scholars have also raised concerns regarding the potential marginalisation of community agency, noting that state-led institutionalisation may lead to a form of “heritage freeze” that prioritises preservation over organic evolution (Pan 2005; Gregory 2009).
More broadly, the literature on traditional performing arts has underscored the persistent tensions between innovation and preservation. Challenges such as cultural dilution under excessive modernisation, economic precarity in commercialised creative economies, and generational disengagement—particularly among youth audiences—continue to threaten the sustainability of ICH practices (Throsby 2019; Hafstein 2008). Scholars critical of market-driven heritage models have further argued that commodification risks distorting traditional expressions and disembedding them from their sociocultural origins (Cohen 1988; Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 2004).
In 2006, Teochew opera was inscribed as a National Intangible Cultural Heritage of China. Backed by favourable state policies; it has since attracted widespread attention and received substantial protection (H. Liu 2010). In contrast to the state-mediated revival in China, Teochew opera in Malaysia endures through decentralised, community-based efforts operating in a multicultural and diasporic context. With limited government funding or policy intervention, local associations, temple committees, and cultural organisers have sustained the art form through grassroots festivals, intergenerational apprenticeship, and context-sensitive adaptations (Kang 2005; K. Liu and Chen 2009; Law 2016). These practices reflect a form of cultural resilience—the capacity of a community to adapt and reconfigure its cultural expressions while maintaining core values in the face of external pressures (Tavares et al. 2021).
1.3. Problem Statement
Amid accelerating modernisation and global cultural convergence, traditional performing arts increasingly confront challenges to their relevance. Teochew opera, once central to the cultural life of Chinese diasporic communities, faces particular vulnerability in multicultural societies like Malaysia. Digital media proliferation and commercially driven entertainment have altered aesthetic norms and consumption habits, diminishing the visibility and accessibility of traditional forms. These pressures are compounded by generational disengagement and the absence of formal educational support, threatening long-term transmission.
Despite these constraints, Teochew opera in Malaysia has persisted through pragmatic adaptations. Ritual performances remain embedded in community festivals and temple events, while public cultural festivals provide platforms for creative experimentation and audience outreach. These dual strategies reflect an ongoing negotiation between continuity and innovation.
However, scholarly attention to such localised adaptations remains limited. The existing literature tends to focus on the opera’s historical development in China or its general diasporic presence, with scant analysis of how Malaysia’s multicultural context shapes its evolving performance practices and sociocultural meanings. While community-led initiatives are central to the opera’s endurance, their role in enacting cultural resilience and sustainability has received insufficient critical attention. Unlike state-mediated preservation in China, Teochew opera in Malaysia survives through decentralised, context-responsive practices grounded in everyday life. These reflect resilience—the capacity to adapt while preserving identity—and sustainability, defined as long-term cultural viability.
1.4. Research Questions and Objectives
This study examines the sustainable development of Teochew opera within Malaysia’s multicultural society, focusing on how the art form is maintained and revitalised through practices rooted in the Chinese Malaysian community. Rather than treating sustainability as a fixed outcome, the research approaches it as a context-specific process shaped by cultural agency and adaptive strategies.
The central research question asks: How is the sustainable development of Teochew opera achieved in Malaysia through community-based practices, and what enables its continued relevance in a pluralistic cultural landscape? In response, the study proposes the hypothesis that Teochew opera’s sustainability depends on strategies developed within the Chinese Malaysian community that negotiate between tradition and modernity, ensuring cultural continuity through adaptation, reinterpretation, and intergenerational transmission.
The originality of this research lies in its empirical focus on Malaysia as a diasporic, multicultural context where heritage preservation occurs largely through bottom-up, community-driven efforts rather than formal state intervention. While previous scholarship has focused on state-led revitalisation models in China, this study advances knowledge by critically analysing how Teochew opera persists and transforms in the absence of official heritage recognition. It offers a sustainable approach that may be applied to other traditional art forms facing similar pressures in globalised and multi-ethnic settings.
2. Results
Teochew opera in Malaysia is persevering and sustaining through practices in both sacred rituals and secular entertainment, and the content and purpose of performances on these two occasions are distinct. The subsequent results present performances in each context.
2.1. Teochew Opera in Sacred Ritual
In contemporary Malaysia, Teochew opera remains a vital component of rituals, particularly within the religious practices of the Malaysian Chinese community that centre on beliefs in deities, ancestral spirits, and wandering ghosts. In Penang, where the tradition is especially well preserved, the opera continues to be performed during a wide range of ceremonial events, reflecting its enduring ritual significance. Table 1 shows the occasions on which the researcher observed it being performed during fieldwork. These performances are typically held in fixed temples, erecting a temporary stage opposite the statue of deities and dismantling after the event, as shown in Figure 1. The continued observance of these ritual forms in Penang highlights the relative integrity of Teochew opera’s ceremonial role within the local cultural–religious landscape.
Teochew opera performed during the rituals preserves traditional customs. For example, during the Hungry Ghost Festival, a seating area is arranged for ghosts to watch a performance, as illustrated in Figure 2. According to Chinese traditions, attracting these ghosts through theatrical performances and placing offerings on the seats is believed to mitigate the harm they might inflict on the communities (Lim 2021).
Teochew opera performances within sacred contexts maintain traditional content, which consists of fixed ritual plays. Before the commencement of the entire performance, ritual performances known as an “impersonating deity play (扮仙戏)” are conducted, in which actors don attire representing deities, engaging in dramatic performances focused on praying for blessings and exorcising evil spirits. Each impersonating deity play in Teochew opera is independent and classified into large-scale and small-scale performances based on the number of performers and the duration. This categorisation is widely recognised among Malaysian Teochew opera practitioners. Furthermore, the repertoire of deity impersonation plays across all Teochew opera troupes is standardised, as shown in Table 2, with only minor variations in specific performance movements and costume details. Performing troupes, including local Malaysian groups, including Lao Yu Tang and Xin Yu Lou, as well as Thai troupes, such as Tiong Chia Soon Heang and Sai Boon Fong, contribute to the event.
To illustrate how ritual-themed Teochew opera performances are interpreted by community members, Table 3 presents selected interview excerpts organised by thematic codes. These responses reveal the symbolic meanings assigned to each opera and highlight how participants perceive their ritual efficacy within specific socio-religious contexts.
Interviewees consistently indicated that Teochew opera performances in ritual contexts serve two interconnected purposes. First, they act as a means of symbolic supplication, translating human wishes into visible, embodied forms directed toward the divine. These performances are not simply stories, but ritualised expressions of intent, made spiritually meaningful through movement, spatial arrangement, and sound. Second, the staging of the opera itself serves a ritual function. Temporary stages are typically set up facing the temple’s altar or with performers standing directly in front of the statue to perform (as shown in Figure 3), and timed with religious festivals, creating a sacred space where humans and deities symbolically meet.
Respondents stressed that aesthetic enjoyment is secondary. Audiences may come and go, and a full understanding of the story is not essential. What matters is the sincerity of the offering, its proper direction toward the deity, and its performance within the correct ritual context. In this setting, the opera functions as a sacred offering rather than as entertainment. Through codified gestures, costumes, and speech, actors temporarily take on divine or mythological roles, not to entertain, but to act as intermediaries between the human and spirit worlds. These roles are not spiritual possessions but ritual impersonations, legitimised by long-standing aesthetic and religious conventions.
In this context, Teochew opera functions less as theatre and more as embodied devotion—a ritual language through which communities express desires, affirm moral values, and restore cosmic balance. The convergence of story, bodily movement, and sacred setting makes these intentions spiritually intelligible, allowing brief but meaningful contact between the human and the divine.
In addition, music is a crucial element that supports the narrative of Teochew opera, particularly in ritual contexts, where the traditional accompanying instruments are faithfully retained, as shown in Table 4. The ensemble comprised Wenpan (文畔, orchestral instruments) and Wupan (武畔, percussion instruments). In Teochew opera performances, the Wenpan and Wupan work together to create a rich, multi-layered soundscape that enhances the storytelling. The Wenpan instruments are primarily responsible for the melodic and harmonic elements, supporting the singers and conveying the emotional undertones of the narrative. The Wupan instruments, on the other hand, add rhythmic complexity and dramatic punctuation, which are essential for action sequences and maintaining the pacing of the performance.
The performers of Teochew opera in rituals are generally elderly and staunch advocates of the tradition. For example, Teh (1952–present), the lead actor in Xin Yu Lou Troupe, is over seventy years old and noted that the principal actors in their troupe are all over fifty. Most of them still perform and rehearse using the two-four score (which uses Chinese characters to record pitch) or the gong and drum score (which uses onomatopoeic characters to record the sequence of musical instruments), as shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5, and teach new performers by oral instruction.
To further elucidate how Teochew opera operates as a sacred form of ritual expression rather than conventional theatre, selected interview excerpts have been thematically coded and presented in Table 5. These responses highlight how performers and community members understand the opera as a devotional act, which is framed within codified ritual aesthetics and aimed at facilitating spiritual communication. Particular emphasis is placed on maintaining traditional gestures, costuming, spatial orientation, and musical conventions, all of which are seen as essential to preserving its sacred function and ensuring ritual efficacy.
2.2. Teochew Opera in Secular Entertainment
Beyond ritual contexts, Teochew opera in Malaysia has increasingly been performed in secular cultural settings. This shift reflects the cumulative impact of national cultural policies aimed at fostering multicultural participation and heritage preservation.
The National Development Policy 1991 and Wawasan 2020 laid the groundwork by promoting economic expansion and encouraging cultural inclusivity. While primarily focused on economic growth, these policies indirectly enabled the flourishing of the arts by increasing government support for cultural infrastructure and festivals (Mauzy and Milne 2002). Opera troupes began participating in city-run events, community celebrations, and state-organised exhibitions, reaching broader and more diverse audiences. Corporate sponsorships and local government funding further expanded performance opportunities beyond temple grounds. The introduction of the National Heritage Act 2005 formalised the state’s commitment to cultural protection by providing legal mechanisms for the safeguarding of both tangible and intangible heritage (Mustafa and Abdullah 2013). Although Teochew opera has not yet been officially recognised under the act, the inscription of other Chinese cultural forms, such as the lion dance and the twenty-four festive drums, has inspired opera practitioners and validated their preservation efforts. Since then, opera performances have become more visible at official cultural events and public festivals, often framed as representative of Chinese Malaysian heritage. More recently, the Malaysian National Cultural Policy (DAKEN 2021) has further encouraged the integration of minority cultural practices into national narratives. While reaffirming the centrality of national identity, this policy explicitly supports cultural diversity, sustainability, and heritage innovation (The Government of Malaysia’s Official Portal 2021). Under this policy, Teochew opera has received increased support through collaborations with heritage institutions, tourism programmes, and educational initiatives. Its inclusion in government-funded cultural programming has widened its presence in secular performance spaces such as urban theatres, cultural parks, and community halls, as shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7.
Table 6 presents selected interview data that reflect the evolving dynamics of Teochew opera in contemporary secular settings. As the art form transitions from its traditional ritual context into state-sponsored and public cultural platforms, practitioners have adopted a range of adaptive strategies. These include the structural condensation of performances, the integration of subtitles for wider accessibility (as shown in Figure 8), and the incorporation of local narratives and musical elements (as shown in Figure 9). Significantly, interview data indicate a thematic shift in repertoire: whereas ritual performances traditionally focused on divine supplication or exorcistic functions, secular performances increasingly foreground Confucian and communal values such as filial piety, heroism, loyalty, and justice, as shown in Table 7. These moral themes not only align with national multicultural ideals but also resonate with broader, multi-ethnic audiences. The narratives are now framed less as sacred offerings and more as cultural showcases that promote shared ethical ideals. Such shifts suggest that Teochew opera, while maintaining its core aesthetic framework, is undergoing a process of selective modernisation, which reinforces its relevance within Malaysia’s plural cultural policy landscape and repositions it as a medium for cultural education and soft diplomacy.
To address the pressing issue of generational transmission, Malaysian Teochew opera practitioners have increasingly turned to structured, institutional approaches to teaching. A significant development in this regard is the establishment of a heritage centre in Penang, initiated through collaboration with the Guangdong Teochew Opera Institute (as shown in Figure 10). The centre operates as a dedicated training facility offering systematic instruction in music, stylised performance techniques, and dialect pronunciation, while also serving as a resource hub for archiving teaching materials and experimenting with simplified musical notation. Crucially, the heritage centre promotes accessibility by welcoming learners across ethnic backgrounds, age groups, and language proficiencies (as shown in Figure 11). This inclusive approach not only broadens participation but also fosters intercultural understanding, positioning Teochew opera as a shared cultural resource within Malaysia’s plural society.
In the course of participant observation, this study identified a notable shift in the performance model of Teochew opera within Malaysia’s secular context. Departing from the conventional “performer–audience” dichotomy that characterises traditional operatic presentations, contemporary stagings increasingly adopt a participatory performance framework. This emerging model reconfigures audience engagement by integrating spectators directly into the performative and educational dimensions of the event. Rather than positioning the audience as passive observers, participatory performances encourage active involvement through structured interaction, cultural learning, and embodied experience. This shift is particularly evident in government-sponsored performances and cultural festivals, where participatory strategies are intentionally embedded within the event design. Prior to the formal performance, audiences are often introduced to the symbolic language of Teochew opera via guided exhibitions (as shown in Figure 12), interpretative signage, or live demonstrations of key performative elements such as gesture, costume, or vocal techniques. These knowledge-sharing components not only facilitate a deeper understanding of the art form’s aesthetic codes but also broaden access for non-Teochew-speaking and multi-ethnic audiences.
Crucially, participatory performance extends beyond cognitive engagement to include embodied participation. As Figure 13 and Figure 14 show, post-performance workshops, interactive demonstrations, and hands-on costume experiences offer audiences the opportunity to physically engage with the material culture and performative techniques of Teochew opera. These activities serve pedagogical as well as affective functions, fostering cultural literacy while cultivating a sense of belonging and emotional resonance. For younger participants, in particular, this model provides a low-barrier entry point into a complex traditional art form that may otherwise appear distant or inaccessible. Through these participatory formats, Teochew opera becomes a dynamic site of cultural dialogue rather than a static display of heritage. The model’s inclusive orientation not only supports intergenerational transmission but also enhances the opera’s relevance in a plural and rapidly changing society. In doing so, it exemplifies a responsive mode of heritage performance that aligns with broader objectives of cultural sustainability and public engagement.
3. Discussion
The research result reveals that the sustainability of Teochew opera in Malaysia is shaped by the interplay between institutional support and community-driven efforts. Government policies provide structural frameworks and resources, while local practitioners ensure cultural continuity through ritual observance and creative adaptation. This dual approach enables the opera to remain relevant in both sacred and secular spheres of Malaysian society. This study adopts the concept of “duality” to explain its developmental approach, which is the coexistence of two distinct, contrasting or complementary elements within a single entity or concept. It recognises two interconnected aspects without necessarily suggesting a separation or opposition (Le Boutillier 2008; Wei 1992).
The term “duality” aptly captures the coexistence and complementary nature of Teochew opera in different contexts. Although sacred and secular elements serve distinct purposes and contexts, they are interconnected and can influence each other without being strictly completely opposed or mutually exclusive. Schechner articulated this duality in the performance contexts. He suggested that in the sacred context, performance often serves as a conduit for expressing the divine, the spiritual, or the transcendent (Schechner 1994). Sacred performances are rooted in ritual, tradition, and the enactment of communal beliefs. In contrast, secular performances primarily focus on entertainment, aesthetic appreciation, or articulating individual or collective identities. The duality inherent in Teochew opera aligns with its adaptability within Malaysian performance contexts, serving diverse purposes, thereby ensuring its sustainability.
3.1. Duality Resolves the Paradox of Change and Constancy
Teochew opera, as a cultural form, is dynamic; it necessitates ongoing development and adaptation while preserving core elements that ensure continuity and stability. The duality of Teochew opera’s development model in Malaysia addresses the paradox of cultural development as either change or constancy, as illustrated in Figure 15, and allows the preservation of tradition and the embrace of modernity to coexist, as shown in Table 8.
Teochew opera performances in rituals are defined by their periodicity, utility, and rich metaphors, aiming to create a mystical experience through choreographed movements, props, and sounds that symbolise a connection with the divine. Although the lyrics are often in dialect and may be incomprehensible, the audience is drawn by belief and curiosity, engaging deeply in devotion and prayer. Participants focus on auspicious symbols tied to their beliefs in ritualistic exorcism, with music playing a vital role in expressing these narratives and underscoring the community’s dedication to the deities to bestow blessings.
In a sacred context, Teochew opera is closely linked to traditional rituals that serve the beliefs of the Malaysian Chinese community. These rituals create a relatively closed environment where ritual elements remain immutable; any arbitrary changes would be considered sacrilegious, thereby preserving the tradition. The interplay between Teochew opera and rituals reinforces communal identities and protects the community’s spiritual heritage. Typically, performances focus on gods and ancestor worship, granting profound significance to each show. In this situation, Teochew opera, as an intangible offering, on the one hand, achieves appeasing the gods in exchange for favours. On the other hand, performances satisfy audience expectations through impersonation, as actors don costumes and makeup to portray gods or historical figures. These functions ensure its continuity in the community.
Teochew opera maintains resistance to change in ritualistic performances, which are viewed as vital to preserving tradition within the Chinese community in Malaysia. Rituals are inherently conservative, affirming community values and social structures (Turner 1998). During rituals, Teochew opera acts as worship and divine communication. Therefore, ritualistic performances often resist modernisation precisely because their power lies in their ability to repeat and re-enact tradition, fostering a sense of continuity across generations (Stephenson 2015). Furthermore, the aesthetic of tradition in Teochew opera is highly valued in ritual contexts. Performance is assessed by its fidelity to established forms rather than innovation. Adhering to traditional narratives, music, and styles reflects skill and reverence, not stagnation. The Malaysian Chinese community regards these elements as vital embodiments of their culture, meant to be preserved in their original form.
In contrast, in a secular framework, Teochew opera enriches itself by incorporating elements from various cultures within Malaysia’s multicultural landscape, appealing to diverse backgrounds (Lindberg 2018), an adaptation which revitalises Teochew opera in cultural festivals and theatres. Two main forces drive this innovation: the Malaysian government’s multiculturalism policy, which enables exchanges between Teochew opera and other local cultural traditions, and internal efforts within the Chinese community. Contributions from performers, cultural practitioners, businessmen, and associations promote sustainable development. These cultural events allow Teochew opera to highlight Chinese culture, fostering pride among Malaysian Chinese while promoting cultural exchanges and advancing multicultural development across ethnic groups.
In secular contexts, Teochew’s opera shows a notable receptiveness to innovation, which is vital for its sustainability and relevance in a rapidly modern world. This adaptability does not compromise its traditional essence; instead, it exemplifies a dynamic cultural practice that retains its core identity while evolving with external influences. Core elements like costuming, classic scripts, and performance techniques remain unchanged. Additionally, it has embraced local Malaysian narratives and instruments from other ethnic groups, such as Malays and Indians. Teochew opera prioritises enhancing music and performance quality, appealing to audiences more effectively than ritual performances, which are often less focused on aesthetic experience. The increasing demand for melodious music, exceptional acting, and sophisticated stagecraft means only performances embodying these qualities gain recognition. These innovations in Teochew opera engage younger generations, broadening its audience and fostering cultural exchange among Malaysia’s ethnic groups, ensuring it remains a living tradition rather than a static cultural heritage.
The duality of the sacred and the secular in Teochew opera is a fundamental basis for its sustainable development. This interplay can be visualised as a tree, as shown in Figure 16. The sacred aspect is the root of stability, which anchors the tradition in rituals and communal belief, ensuring continuity and reverence for its cultural heritage within the Malaysian landscape. Conversely, the secular aspect represents the canopy, which constantly absorbs nutrients (cultural elements) to innovate and change, allowing the art form to adapt and resonate with broader audiences. Thus, this duality preserves the opera’s integrity and enhances its relevance within a modern cultural landscape.
3.2. Risks and Challenges to Sustainability
While the duality of sacred and secular performance has enabled Teochew opera to endure in Malaysia’s multicultural society, its long-term sustainability is shaped by several interrelated challenges. These stem from internal limitations within the tradition and external structural constraints, particularly regarding policy support, public engagement, and generational transmission.
Within ritual contexts, Teochew opera has retained its traditional essence through ritualised performances. However, the preservation is largely symbolic rather than holistic. Opera troupes often rely on a narrow set of ritualised plays due to the declining mastery of traditional scripts and music scores. The absence of critical spectatorship—given that the performance is directed towards deities rather than human audiences—limits artistic refinement. This setting may inadvertently foster indifference to performance quality, especially when payments are guaranteed and audience feedback is minimal. As such, while ritual performance sustains cultural relevance within the community, it risks becoming stagnant or passionless over time.
In secular contexts, although government-led cultural programmes and public festivals have provided new platforms, the sustainability of such initiatives remains precarious. Funding is often temporary or tied to short-term events, while long-term investment in talent development, venue infrastructure, and digital outreach remains limited. Moreover, intergenerational transmission is constrained by the perceived lack of professional pathways for young performers, compounded by limited instructional resources and inconsistent training models.
To summarise these dynamics, Table 9 outlines key risk categories identified during fieldwork and interviews, linking them to their sources and potential consequences for the art form’s sustainability.
While these risks do not necessarily indicate an impending decline, they suggest areas where caution, reflexivity, and cultural sensitivity are required. The success of Teochew opera’s dual framework depends not only on expanding its public appeal but also on maintaining its internal integrity as a living, evolving heritage. Effective safeguarding requires a balance between innovation and preservation, guided by both institutional foresight and community agency. Recognising these challenges can help practitioners and policymakers alike to develop more robust, context-sensitive models for the long-term sustainability of Teochew opera in Malaysia.
3.3. Future Development Recommendations
To ensure the long-term sustainability of Teochew opera in Malaysia, this study proposes a series of practical and culturally grounded recommendations. These are informed by fieldwork findings, interviews with practitioners, and current gaps in policy and infrastructure. Rather than treating challenges as limitations, the following proposals frame them as opportunities for innovation, collaboration, and institutional development.
First, greater integration between sacred and secular performance contexts would enhance both public engagement and cultural understanding. At present, ritual performances tend to be isolated from wider audiences, while secular events often lack depth in conveying the opera’s symbolic meaning. A more integrated model can be developed where secular performances include brief educational segments that explain the ritual origins of specific plays, roles, or costumes. Similarly, ritual events could introduce accessible presentation tools such as guided narration or bilingual programme notes. This cross-pollination between formats would not only support audience comprehension but also reinforce the opera’s historical significance and aesthetic richness.
Second, the interest shown by younger generations must be met with concrete pathways for long-term involvement. While informal learning opportunities currently exist, the absence of clear professional routes has limited the appeal of Teochew opera as a career. Establishing structured training frameworks is vital. These might include formal certification programmes, tiered progression systems from amateur to professional levels, and paid apprenticeship schemes with experienced performers. Partnerships with the Guangdong Teochew Opera Institute already offer a promising model; such collaborations could be expanded to develop standardised curricula and joint training centres in Malaysia.
Third, a coordinated effort is needed to achieve formal recognition of Teochew opera as part of Malaysia’s national intangible cultural heritage. Although several other Chinese art forms have received official listing, Teochew opera remains unrecognised, which affects its visibility and access to state funding. Practitioners and scholars could establish an advocacy group or representative body to spearhead heritage application efforts. This would involve documentation of performance practices, oral histories, costume archives, and musical notation, submitted as part of an application to the relevant heritage authorities. Recognition would also enable the appointment of official cultural bearers, opening pathways for funding and institutional support.
Fourth, embedding Teochew opera into the national education system would significantly strengthen its transmission. Primary and secondary schools could host co-curricular activities or arts appreciation classes featuring Chinese opera, supported by age-appropriate learning materials. Meanwhile, universities could develop elective courses or research-based modules within performing arts or cultural heritage programmes. These initiatives would expose students from different ethnic and linguistic backgrounds to Teochew opera, fostering intercultural respect while ensuring broader generational reach. Collaboration with the Ministry of Education and local school councils would be essential to realise these efforts in a sustainable and inclusive manner.
Collectively, these recommendations reflect a comprehensive strategy for revitalising Teochew opera through adaptive performance practices, vocational development, policy recognition, and educational integration. When implemented in alignment with the needs and aspirations of the practitioner community, these initiatives can ensure the sustainable development of Teochew opera as a vibrant living heritage, securing its firm place within Malaysia’s multicultural future.
4. Materials and Methods
This study employs a qualitative ethnographic approach to investigate the resilience and sustainability of Teochew opera in Malaysia. Fieldwork involved participant observation of ritual and secular performances, rehearsals, and festivals; in-depth interviews with performers, organisers, and audiences; and the collection of visual and archival materials. These methods offer a situated understanding of how the opera endures and adapts within a multicultural context.
The analysis integrates cultural resilience and cultural sustainability to examine how traditional practices respond to external pressures while maintaining continuity. Resilience denotes the opera’s ability to adapt to shifting sociocultural and economic conditions without compromising its core identity (Frigotto and Frigotto 2022), while sustainability refers to its long-term viability through intergenerational transmission, institutional relevance, and evolving meaning (Roca et al. 2021). Viewed together, these concepts reveal how the holders of Teochew opera negotiate change while securing its cultural future.
4.1. Research Sites and Duration
The fieldwork for this study spanned from November 2022 to December 2023, encompassing a full calendar year to capture the temporal rhythms and sociocultural dynamics that shape the sustainability of Teochew opera in Malaysia. This extended duration enabled observation of various performances across sacred and secular contexts, including temple celebrations, deity birthdays, ancestral rituals, and multicultural festivals. Such immersion facilitates familiarity and trust-building, while also revealing culturally sustainable approaches from both insider and outsider perspectives.
Research was conducted in two key sites, Penang and Kuala Lumpur, where Teochew opera remains actively practised. In Penang, the opera remains closely tied to ritual and religious festivals, sustained by longstanding clan associations and temple patronage, such as the Penang Teochew Association and the Kuala Lumpur Teochew Federation, as well as the Kwun Yin Temple and the Xuantian God Temple. These settings allowed in-depth observation of how ritual performance protocols reinforce continuity and traditional authority. In contrast, Kuala Lumpur provided a vantage point on the opera’s adaptive strategies in pluralistic public spaces, where it is increasingly performed in state-sponsored and cross-cultural events. These performances foreground innovation, aesthetic flexibility, and cultural recontextualisation. Together, the two sites reflect the dual identity of Teochew opera as both a tradition and an evolving cultural practice—an essential tension at the heart of its sustainable development in modern Malaysia.
4.2. Data Collection Methods
Data was collected using participant observation and semi-structured interviews, as shown in Figure 17. These methods were selected to complement each other, providing a comprehensive view of how Teochew opera is sustained within the Malaysian context.
Participant observation was the primary data collection method used in this study. As a method grounded in interpretivist qualitative research, participant observation enables the researcher to engage directly with the daily realities of cultural life, offering insight into observable behaviours and the underlying meanings that shape them (Denzin and Lincoln 2011). Its use in this study is particularly suited to investigating how Teochew opera maintains its cultural continuity while adapting to contemporary social, political, and aesthetic pressures, which is a core concern within the broader discourse on cultural sustainability. This method was conducted across a variety of settings, each offering distinct insights into how the art form operates within both traditional and contemporary cultural frameworks. The main contexts of observation are outlined in Table 10.
The researcher took detailed field notes in both settings and used photography and audio recordings (with participant consent) to document the performance environments, dialogues, and audience responses. A reflexive journal was also maintained to record methodological decisions, interpretive insights, and shifts in understanding over time. This dual-site observational strategy enabled a comprehensive analysis of how Teochew opera navigates continuity and change across its ritual and representational expressions, aligning directly with the study’s objective of examining cultural sustainability through the lens of practice.
In addition, semi-structured interviews were used to supplement participant observation, providing diverse perspectives essential for understanding the sustainable development of Teochew opera. As shown in the Table 11, the selection of informants was guided by predetermined criteria designed to ensure comprehensive representation of the various stakeholders involved in the practice of Teochew opera. These categories included performers, organisers, scholars, and audiences, each offering a unique viewpoint on the sustainability of the art form. Performers were selected based on their extensive experience, as their insights are crucial for understanding the internal dynamics of performance and the challenges of maintaining tradition. Organisers were included for their role in facilitating the opera’s presentation and ensuring its accessibility to broader audiences. Scholars were chosen for their academic expertise on cultural sustainability and traditional art forms. Finally, audience members from various generational and ethnic backgrounds were selected to gauge the opera’s reception and cultural significance. Purposive sampling was initially employed to identify key informants, such as senior performer Ling Goh, and snowball sampling was subsequently used to expand the pool of informants, ensuring a rich diversity of perspectives on the topic.
In this study, 20 informants were interviewed, each lasting between 60 and 90 min. The question encompasses multiple dimensions, including the performance structure of Teochew opera, preservation strategies, the influences of modernity, and the roles of government and community in supporting cultural heritage. The interviews were audio-recorded, then transcribed verbatim and thematically analysed to identify recurring themes and patterns relating to sustainable approaches of Teochew opera in Malaysia.
5. Conclusions
The example of Teochew opera in Malaysia illustrates its sustainability by maintaining inherent duality, a concept in cultural studies that addresses change and invariance in cultural development. This duality recognises that cultures are dynamic and ever-evolving while preserving core elements that provide continuity. Regarding Teochew opera in a sacred context, local beliefs and customs support cultural roots, ensuring its stability within Malaysia’s multicultural landscape. Conversely, the secular aspect of duality rejuvenates Teochew opera, fostering modernity and engaging audiences through multicultural exchanges.
Duality presents two perspectives on cultural sustainability. Cultures change due to internal factors, such as individual innovations, and external influences, including interactions with other cultures and technological advancements. These changes result in the evolution of certain cultural elements. Invariance is the persistence of fundamental aspects that maintain a culture’s distinct identity. Core values, traditions, and social structures are stability anchors amidst evolving aspects.
Maintaining this duality is helpful for cultural sustainability. This coexistence allows cultures to adapt without losing their inherent characteristics, ensuring they respond to contemporary challenges while reflecting historical roots. This dynamic interplay ensures that cultures are not static but are living, evolving entities that can respond to contemporary challenges while still reflecting their historical and cultural roots. Recognising this duality provides a nuanced understanding of cultural development, highlighting the complexity of traditional cultures as adaptable entities. For example, traditional music or dance can be preserved by maintaining a traditional habitat, while simultaneously innovating in another context to adapt to contemporary performances. Such initiatives demonstrate cultural practices’ potential to evolve in response to global influences without losing their essence. This approach encourages broader participation, attracting traditionalists and innovators, enriching cultural discourse, and ensuring comprehensive cultural sustainability. This way, traditional cultures can navigate today’s challenges while maintaining unique identities and continuity with their roots, achieving sustainable development.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, Z.L. and M.F.A.; methodology, Z.L.; software, Z.L.; validation, Z.L. and M.F.A.; formal analysis, Z.L.; investigation, Z.L.; resources, Z.L.; data curation, Z.L.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.L.; writing—review and editing, Z.L. and M.F.A.; visualization, Z.L. and M.F.A.; supervision, M.F.A.; project administration, Z.L.; funding acquisition, Z.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
This study involved interviews and has received ethical approval from the Ethics Committee for Research involving Human Subjects Universiti Putra Malaysia, Approval Ref: JKEUPM-2022-897.
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in this study.
Data Availability Statement
Data are contained within the article.
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our gratitude to all participants in this study.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Figure 1.
A temporary stage was set up in front of the deity statue for Teochew opera performances. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 1.
A temporary stage was set up in front of the deity statue for Teochew opera performances. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 2.
People set up empty red seats to invite ghosts to watch a Teochew opera. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 2.
People set up empty red seats to invite ghosts to watch a Teochew opera. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 3.
Performers staged a Teochew opera performance in front of the shrine. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 3.
Performers staged a Teochew opera performance in front of the shrine. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 4.
An excerpt from the traditional two-four score of Teochew opera, which identifies pitch by Chinese numerals in Chinese characters. This traditional notation uses the Chinese numerals 二三四五六 (two, three, four, five, and six) to denote pitch (Provided by Teh, 22 May 2024).
Figure 4.
An excerpt from the traditional two-four score of Teochew opera, which identifies pitch by Chinese numerals in Chinese characters. This traditional notation uses the Chinese numerals 二三四五六 (two, three, four, five, and six) to denote pitch (Provided by Teh, 22 May 2024).
Figure 5.
An excerpt from the traditional gong and drum score of Teochew opera, which indicates the order of instrumental performance by contrasting the Chinese characters’ onomatopoeia with the sound of the instrument. This notation employs Chinese character pronunciations corresponding to instrumental sounds to record the sequence of instrumental performance. For instance, “主 (Zhu)” denotes striking the drumhead with a single mallet followed by dampening to produce a muffled tone, while “隆 (Long)” signifies striking the drum with both mallets to create a strong and weak tone. (Provided by Teh, 22 May 2024).
Figure 5.
An excerpt from the traditional gong and drum score of Teochew opera, which indicates the order of instrumental performance by contrasting the Chinese characters’ onomatopoeia with the sound of the instrument. This notation employs Chinese character pronunciations corresponding to instrumental sounds to record the sequence of instrumental performance. For instance, “主 (Zhu)” denotes striking the drumhead with a single mallet followed by dampening to produce a muffled tone, while “隆 (Long)” signifies striking the drum with both mallets to create a strong and weak tone. (Provided by Teh, 22 May 2024).
Figure 6.
Teochew opera performance at an arts festival. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 7.
Teochew opera performances in official cultural events. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 8.
Teochew opera performances in theatres use added subtitles to assist audiences from other ethnic groups in understanding the plot. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 8.
Teochew opera performances in theatres use added subtitles to assist audiences from other ethnic groups in understanding the plot. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 9.
Musicians attempt to incorporate diverse instruments in Teochew opera accompaniments. (Provided by Goh, 2023).
Figure 9.
Musicians attempt to incorporate diverse instruments in Teochew opera accompaniments. (Provided by Goh, 2023).
Figure 10.
Malaysia Teochew Opera Heritage Centre (马来西亚潮剧传承中心) was established in Penang in 2022. It is jointly organised by the Guangdong Chao Opera Institute (广东潮剧院) and the Penang Teochew Puppet and Opera House (潮艺馆). (Kwongwah 2022).
Figure 10.
Malaysia Teochew Opera Heritage Centre (马来西亚潮剧传承中心) was established in Penang in 2022. It is jointly organised by the Guangdong Chao Opera Institute (广东潮剧院) and the Penang Teochew Puppet and Opera House (潮艺馆). (Kwongwah 2022).
Figure 11.
Students from diverse backgrounds are learning Teochew opera at the Penang Teochew Puppet and Opera House (潮艺馆), which is the Teochew opera learning and heritage centre in Penang, Malaysia. (Provided by Goh, 2023).
Figure 11.
Students from diverse backgrounds are learning Teochew opera at the Penang Teochew Puppet and Opera House (潮艺馆), which is the Teochew opera learning and heritage centre in Penang, Malaysia. (Provided by Goh, 2023).
Figure 12.
At the stage entrance, a small exhibition stand is typically set up where staff introduce the characters, props, and decorations featured in the Teochew opera performance. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 12.
At the stage entrance, a small exhibition stand is typically set up where staff introduce the characters, props, and decorations featured in the Teochew opera performance. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 13.
Performers invite the audience to participate in the performance, learning the movements. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 13.
Performers invite the audience to participate in the performance, learning the movements. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 14.
Audiences from different ethnic groups experience Teochew opera costumes during the event. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 14.
Audiences from different ethnic groups experience Teochew opera costumes during the event. (Photo by the author, 2023).
Figure 15.
The duality of Teochew opera allows traditional and modern elements to coexist. (Author’s own work).
Figure 15.
The duality of Teochew opera allows traditional and modern elements to coexist. (Author’s own work).
Figure 16.
The duality of Teochew opera is visualised as a tree. (Author’s own work).
Figure 17.
Research flow chart. (Author’s own work).
Table 1.
Types and dates of rituals with Teochew opera performances in Malaysia.
| Type | Dates (Lunar Calendar) | |
|---|---|---|
| God’s Birthdays | Kwun Yum (观音诞) | The 19th day of the 2nd month The 19th day of the 6th month The 19th day of the 9th month |
| Jade Emperor (天公诞) | The 9th day of the 1st month | |
| Tua Pek Kong (大伯公诞) | The 15th day of the 1st month and the 2nd day of the 2nd month | |
| Xuantian Shangdi (玄天上帝诞) | The 3rd day of the 3rd month | |
| Ma Zu (妈祖诞) | The 23rd day of the 3rd month | |
| City God (城隍诞) | The 28th day of 5th month | |
| Guan Yu (关帝诞) | The 24th day of the 6th month | |
| Nine Emperor Gods (九皇爷诞) | The 1st and 9th days of the 9th month | |
| Huaguang Dadi (华光大帝诞) | The 28th day of 9th month | |
| Taiyi Zhenren (太乙救苦天尊圣诞) | The 11th day of 11th month | |
| Amitabha (阿弥陀佛诞) | The 17th day of 11th month | |
| Na Tok Kong (拿督公) | The dates are not fixed | |
| Ancestor’s Birthdays | A deceased ancestor in a clan or family | The dates are not fixed |
| Hungry Ghost Festivals | Da Shi Ye (大士爷) and the lonely souls (ghosts) | From 1st to 30th days of the 7th month |
Table 2.
Content of impersonating deity play of Teochew opera.
| Type | Large-Scale (大扮仙) | Small-Scale (小扮仙) |
|---|---|---|
| Duration | Approximately 40–50 min each | Not exceeding 10 min each |
| Number of performers | More than 10 people | Except for the Eight Immortals Celebrate a Longevity Birthday, they are all 1 to 2 people |
| Repertoire | Six Kingdoms Granted the Prime Minister (六国封相) Carp Jumping Dragon Gate (鲤鱼跳龙门) | Eight Immortals Celebrate a Longevity Birthday (八仙庆寿) Dance for Promotion (跳加冠) Goddess Sends Her Son (仙姬送子) Purification Stage (净棚) Capital Meeting (京城会) |
| Purpose | Fulfil the ritual function of praying for blessings or exorcising evil spirits | |
Table 3.
Interview responses on the ritual functions of Teochew opera.
| Participant ID | Theme/Code | Verbatim Quote | Interpretation/Analytical Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| P01 | C1—Longevity | “我们演这个戏是祝神明千秋, 祈求家里老人身体健康” (We perform this play to glorify the deities and pray for the health of our family members) | Eight Immortals Celebrate a Longevity Birthday is framed as an offering to deities, symbolising health and long life. |
| P04 | C1—Longevity | “八仙都是好人, 象征长寿、平安、福气” (The Eight Immortals are all benevolent beings, symbolising longevity, peace, and good fortune) | The Eight Immortals are personified virtues, making the performance a visualised prayer for longevity and well-being. |
| P09 | C2—Social Advancement | “做生意的人喜欢这个戏, 说演了就有好兆头” (Businesspeople favour this play, believing its performance brings good fortune) | Dance for Promotion is commonly requested by businesspeople, who believe it invites professional success. |
| P02 | C2—Social Advancement | “里面动作很讲究, 三拜九叩, 表示诚心求升官发财” (The ritual inside is meticulously performed, with three bows and nine kowtows, signifying sincere supplication for promotion and wealth) | Codified gestures symbolise sincere ambition; the ritual action substitutes for verbal prayer. |
| P06 | C3—Fertility and Lineage | “求子的人会特别点这个戏, 是对太子爷表达愿望” (Those seeking offspring would specially request this play, expressing their wishes to the god) | Goddess Sends Her Son reflects prayers for fertility, with the deity figure acting as a divine intermediary. |
| P07 | C3—Fertility and Lineage | “以前没小孩的家庭演了这个, 后来真的生了” (Families without children performed this play, and later they actually had children) | The opera is seen as ritually efficacious, reinforcing belief in divine reciprocity. |
| P05 | C4—Ritual Cleansing/Exorcism | “这场戏要在前面演, 先把不干净的东西赶走” (This play must be performed first to drive away the evil forces) | Purification Stage is perceived as a spiritual cleansing rite that precedes all other ceremonies. |
| P10 | C4—Ritual Cleansing/Exorcism | “皇帝走的那些步伐是驱邪的, 跟道教很像” (The steps taken by the Emperor actor served to ward off evil spirits, much like Taoist practices) | Taoist elements are embedded in choreography, giving ritual legitimacy to the performance. |
| P03 | C5—Reunion and Cosmic Harmony | “七月演这个最有意义, 是生者和亡灵的相会” (Performing this play during the seventh lunar month holds the greatest significance, as it marks the reunion of the living with the departed) | Capital Meeting enacts symbolic reunion between the living and the dead, resonating with the Ghost Festival. |
| P08 | C5—Reunion and Cosmic Harmony | “戏里夫妻重逢, 象征亲情不灭” (The reunion of the husband and wife in the play symbolises the enduring nature of familial affection) | The theme of reunion serves as a metaphor for emotional and spiritual reconciliation. |
Table 4.
Traditional musical instruments used in Teochew opera during rituals.
| Ensemble | Instrument |
|---|---|
| Wu Pan | Su gong (苏锣), Qinzai gong (钦仔锣), Dou gong (斗锣), Qu gong (曲锣), Deep wave gong (深波锣), Cymbals (铙钹), Teochew big drum (潮州大鼓), Zhe drum (哲鼓), Persimmon drum (柿饼鼓), Small drum (小鼓), Temple block (木鱼), Wood block (木板) |
| Wen Pan | Suona (唢呐), Teochew trombone (号头), Yangqin (扬琴), Yehu (椰胡) |
Table 5.
Thematic coding of interview data on the sacred function and traditional continuity of Teochew opera.
Table 5.
Thematic coding of interview data on the sacred function and traditional continuity of Teochew opera.
| Participant ID | Theme/Code | Verbatim Quote | Interpretation/Analytical Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| P02 | Opera as Sacred Offering | “演这个戏不是给人看的, 是给神明看的, 像供香、供果一样” (This performance is not for human spectators, but for the deities, like offering incense and fruit) | The opera is conceived as an offering to deities, comparable to incense or sacrificial food, underscoring its ritual rather than aesthetic function. |
| P05 | Ritual Space Orientation | “舞台一定搭在神坛前, 对着神明, 才有效” (The stage must be erected before the altar, facing the deity, to be effective) | Correct spatial alignment of the stage—facing the deity—is essential to the opera’s ritual efficacy. |
| P07 | Preservation of Ritual Gesture | “我们照老一辈教的动作来演, 不敢随便改, 因为那是仪式的一部分” (We perform the movements as taught by our elders, not daring to alter them arbitrarily, for they form part of the ritual) | Traditional gestural codes are preserved across generations to ensure ritual continuity and legitimacy. |
| P11 | Fixed Ritual Repertoire | “每年都是这几出戏, 不能随便换, 因为每一出代表一个意思” (Every year it’s the same plays; they can’t be changed on a whim, for each one carries a specific meaning) | A fixed set of plays is used in rituals, each associated with a specific symbolic meaning, reinforcing continuity and clarity. |
| P13 | Ritual Impersonation through Costume | “穿上神明的服装后, 我们就是代替他们讲话、做事, 要很庄重” (Once we don the deities’ attire, we become their spokespeople and agents, and must conduct ourselves with the utmost solemnity) | Donning traditional costumes transforms the performer into a ritual agent, performing sacred roles with solemnity and reverence. |
| P16 | Audience as Devotional Participants | “观众不一定看得懂, 但他们会烧香、磕头, 表达心意” (The audience may not fully comprehend it, but they will burn incense and kowtow to express their devotion) | The audience engages not through narrative understanding, but through ritual participation—bowing, offering, and presence. |
| P09 | Temporal Integrity of Ritual Performance | “这种戏只在拜神、祭祖、做仪式的时候演, 平时不能乱演” (Such plays are only performed during worship of the gods, ancestral rites, and ceremonies; they must not be performed indiscriminately at other times) | Performances are reserved for sacred events, reinforcing their ritual sanctity through strict temporal boundaries. |
| P18 | Conservation of Traditional Music | “锣鼓、曲牌我们都照传统来, 改了就不灵了” (We follow tradition with the gongs and drums, the musical modes; if we alter them, we lose their efficacy) | Musical conventions, including percussion (Wupan) and melodic accompaniment (Wenpan), are carefully preserved to maintain ritual effectiveness. |
| P06 | Audience Affiliation | “也有观众参与, 来看的观众都是社区内的华人, 潮州和福建籍贯的, 其他族群的很少, 也有来凑热闹的” (There was also audience participation, with attendees predominantly being Chinese residents from the community, primarily of Teochew and Fukienese descent. Members of other ethnic groups were scarce, though some did come along for the fun of it) | Performances are organised within the community, also targeting the Malaysian Chinese community as the audience. |
Table 6.
Thematic coding of interview data on secular Teochew opera performance and transmission.
| Participant ID | Theme/Code | Verbatim Quote | Interpretation/Analytical Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| P02 | C1—Transition from commercial to state-sponsored performance | “我们现在的演出不是靠观众买票, 而是靠文化局或地方政府给经费” (Our current performances are not funded by ticket sales from audiences, but rather by grants from the Department of Culture or local authorities) | State sponsorship has replaced ticket sales as the primary funding model for secular performances. |
| P03 | C1—Transition from commercial to state-sponsored performance | “现在能在剧场演戏, 是因为有了文化节的资金支持, 不然没人敢投资” (Performing in the theatre is only possible thanks to the funding from the cultural festival; otherwise, no one would dare to invest) | Cultural festivals offer structured platforms that revitalise theatrical Teochew opera. |
| P06 | C1—Transition from commercial to state-sponsored performance | “政府请我们去文化部演出, 感觉这门艺术被看见了” (The government invited us to perform at the Ministry of Culture, and it felt as though this art form was finally being recognised) | Government invitations confer legitimacy and cultural recognition to troupes. |
| P01 | C1—Transition from commercial to state-sponsored performance | “有种被政府认可, 更加觉得有传承潮剧的使命和责任感” (Having gained official recognition from the government, I feel even more strongly about my mission and responsibility to preserve and pass on Chaozhou opera) | Government recognition instils pride in their cultural heritage among the bearers, fostering a sense of responsibility and mission in their cultural transmission. |
| P04 | C1—Transition from commercial to state-sponsored performance | “现在来看戏的不只是华人, 也有马来人和印度人, 都是因为政府宣传做得好” (Nowadays, it’s not just Chinese people who come to watch the plays; Malays and Indians attend too, all thanks to the government’s effective publicity efforts) | Outreach efforts are resulting in more ethnically diverse audiences. |
| P11 | C2—Local cultural and musical integration | “现在慢慢也有一些用当地传说写的剧本, 会让其他族群的观众更有代入感和兴趣” (Gradually, scripts based on local folklore are emerging, which can foster greater immersion and interest among audiences from other ethnic groups) | Incorporation of local folklore helps build relevance for contemporary Malaysian audiences. |
| P18 | C2—Local cultural and musical integration | “加了一些马来西亚的乐器, 很有本土特色, 也很新颖” (The addition of some Malaysian instruments lends it a distinctly local flavour, while also being quite novel) | Fusion with Malay musical instruments reflects an effort to innovate while respecting tradition. |
| P12 | C2—Local cultural and musical integration | “以前的戏我不太懂, 现在加了马来西亚的故事情节就觉得有意思多了” (I didn’t really get the earlier episodes, but now that they’ve added Malaysian storylines, I find it much more interesting) | Localised narratives enhance audience identification and engagement. |
| P05 | C3—Institutional collaboration and formalised transmission | “我们和中国合作成立传承中心, 他们寄来教材, 指导我们怎么培养年轻演员。我们也会去到那边进修” (We have established a heritage centre in collaboration with China, which has provided us with teaching materials and offered guidance on training young performers. We also travel there for further training) | Cross-border cooperation enhances formal transmission and curriculum design. |
| P14 | C3—Institutional collaboration and formalised transmission | “不像以前只靠师父教, 现在有统一的教学计划, 还有阶段性考核” (Unlike the past when learning depended solely on the master’s instruction, there is now a standardised teaching programme, along with periodic assessments) | Shift from master–apprentice to institutionalised pedagogy increases accessibility and standardisation. |
| P16 | C3—Institutional collaboration and formalised transmission | “是非营利组织帮我们申请资金办演出, 自己演根本亏本” (Non-profit organisations help us secure funding for performances; staging them ourselves would be a loss-making venture) | NGOs serve as cultural intermediaries enabling opera production in non-commercial settings. |
| P01 | C3—Institutional collaboration and formalised transmission | “市议会帮我们联系文化馆借场地演出, 省了不少事” (The City Council helped us arrange for the Cultural Centre to lend us a venue for the performance, saving us a great deal of trouble) | Municipal partnerships reduce logistical barriers and encourage performance. |
| P17 | C4—Youth participation and educational programmes | “我不是潮州人, 但学了潮剧以后, 觉得是一种很酷的技能” (I’m not from Teochew, but after learning Teochew opera, I reckon it’s a rather splendid skill) | The art form is gaining appeal beyond its ethnic origins, especially among youth. |
| P18 | C4—Youth participation and educational programmes | “我只会讲一点点潮州话, 但是我还是想学唱腔, 觉得很特别” (I only speak a smattering of Teochew dialect, but I still wish to learn the singing style, as I find it quite distinctive) | Even with limited dialect fluency, youth are attracted by the performative and musical appeal. |
| P01 | C4—Youth participation and educational programmes | “每年我们办儿童潮剧营, 让小孩在假期学习传统戏曲, 包括演唱、身段、脸谱绘画等” (Each year we run a children’s Chaozhou opera camp, enabling youngsters to learn traditional opera during the holidays, including vocal techniques, physical movements, and face-painting) | Youth camps function as entry points for cultural immersion and intergenerational transmission. |
| P03 | C5—Format innovation for contemporary accessibility | “文化节的演出都是10分钟的精选片段, 不能讲太复杂的故事” (The performances at the cultural festival are all 10-minute highlights, so they cannot tell overly complex stories) | Performances are curated for brevity and spectacle, rather than narrative depth. |
| P01 | C5—Format innovation for contemporary accessibility | “整出大戏太长了, 现在我们常演折子戏, 观众也比较愿意看” (The full-length productions are too lengthy; nowadays we often perform excerpts, which audiences tend to prefer) | Performance is shortened to suit modern time constraints and viewing preferences. |
| P02 | C5—Format innovation for contemporary accessibility | “世俗演出常选忠孝节义的故事, 情节紧凑, 又有教育意义” (Secular performances often select stories of loyalty, filial piety, chastity and righteousness, featuring tightly woven plots and educational value) | Secular performances favour morally instructive, condensed dramas suitable for civic events. |
| P18 | C5—Format innovation for contemporary accessibility | “现在很多演出有中文字幕, 这样不懂潮州话的人也能看懂” (Many performances now feature Chinese subtitles, enabling those unfamiliar with Teochew to follow the action) | Subtitles help to overcome language barriers, broadening the potential audience. |
Table 7.
Content of Teochew opera performances in the secular context.
| Type | Date | Content | Theme |
|---|---|---|---|
| Teochew Opera Special Performance | 8 December 2022 | Three Scholars from One Family (一门三进士) | Filial piety |
| Penang Chinese New Year Reunion Event | 23 January 2023 | Mu Guiying Seeks Mate (穆桂英招亲) | Heroism |
| Teochew Opera Special Performance | 2 September 2023 | Mu Guiying Seeks Mate Farewell at the Kiln (别窑) Put to Execution of Zhao Junqiang (怒斩赵俊强) | Heroism; fidelity; justice |
| Yayasan Sime Darby Arts Festival | 20 August 2023 | Mu Guiying Seeks Mate | Heroism |
| Pentas Seni Merdeka (Independence Day celebrations) | 14 October 2023 | Mu Guiying Seeks Mate | Heroism |
Table 8.
The duality of sacred and secular in Teochew opera in Malaysia.
| Duality | Sacred | Secular |
|---|---|---|
| Status | Preserving tradition | Fostering innovation |
| Occasion | Traditional celebrations | Modernisation stages |
| Organiser | Malaysian Chinese community-led | Malaysian government or cultural department-led |
| Purpose | Ritual efficacy | Cultural presentation |
| Performance | Focus on the ritualised processes and actions | Focus on the aesthetic experience and cultural exchange |
| Mode | Observational (audience watching) | Interactive (audience participating) |
| Music | Traditional | International |
| Script | Conformity with beliefs and customs | Diverse and manifesting ethnic virtues |
| Performer | Unrestricted affiliation | Malaysian Chinese |
| Audience | Belief entities and devotees in Chinese community | Various ethnic groups |
Table 9.
Key risks to the sustainable development of Teochew opera in Malaysia.
| Risk | Context | Description | Potential Impact |
|---|---|---|---|
| Artistic stagnation | Ritual | Repetitive plays and lack of performance feedback diminish artistic innovation | Reduced audience appeal; weak professional development |
| Declining repertoire literacy | Ritual | Limited mastery of full-length scripts and traditional musical scores among current practitioners | Loss of performative diversity; erosion of oral knowledge |
| Funding instability | Secular | Cultural policies favour more popular or commercial art forms, resulting in sporadic financial support for Teochew opera | Project-based survival; lack of planning continuity |
| Limited youth participation | Both | Traditional arts seen as non-viable career paths; limited institutional training and role models | Talent shortages; weak generational transmission |
| Weak audience development | Secular | Language barriers, limited promotion, and lack of digital engagement hinder broader public interest | Poor turnout; limited interethnic reach |
| Cultural dilution | Secular | Fusion with local or global performance elements may dilute ritual symbolism and traditional aesthetics | Identity confusion; tension between authenticity and modernisation |
| Seasonal tourism dependency | Secular | Performances rely on cultural festivals and tourism peaks, with limited off-season engagement | Scheduling constraints; unstable performer income |
| Lack of institutional recognition | Both | Teochew opera not formally recognised under the National Heritage Act, despite growing cultural value | Limited protection; missed funding or development opportunities |
Table 10.
Occasions for participant observation.
| Ritual Performances | Cultural Showcase Events | |
|---|---|---|
| Context | These observations took place during religious events such as deity birthdays (e.g., the Jade Emperor, Kwun Yum) and traditional ceremonies, including the Hungry Ghost Festival | These included performances at state-sponsored or multicultural festivals such as the Penang Chinese New Year Celebration and the George Town Festival, where Teochew opera was presented as part of Malaysia’s broader heritage landscape |
| Focus | Attention was given to ceremonial procedures, the positioning of performers and deities, repertoire choice, and interactions between religious functionaries, performers, and audiences | Observations centred on aesthetic modifications, language or musical adaptations, audience composition, media framing, and the integration of opera into non-ritualised public space |
| Purpose | To examine how Teochew opera maintains its sacred and devotional dimensions, and how ritual-based practices contribute to its cultural persistence within the Chinese Malaysian community | To investigate how the opera is recontextualised for public engagement, how innovation is introduced for broader appeal, and how cultural institutions and organisers facilitate its visibility and perceived relevance |
Table 11.
Inclusion criteria, type, and number of informants.
| Type | Inclusion Criteria | Definition | Number |
|---|---|---|---|
| Performer | Must have at least 2 years of active performance experience in Teochew opera | Individuals who are actively involved in performing Teochew opera, including actors, musicians, and composers | 5 |
| Organiser | Must have experience in organising Teochew opera events or festivals for a minimum of 2 years | Individuals responsible for coordinating, promoting, and managing events related to Teochew opera | 4 |
| Scholar | Must have academic research experience in cultural studies, performing arts, or a related field | Academics or researchers who specialise in the study of Teochew opera, cultural sustainability, or anthropology | 4 |
| Audiences | Must have attended at least three Teochew opera performances within the past year | Members of the community or general public who engage with Teochew opera as spectators | 7 |
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MDPI and ACS Style
Lin, Z.; Ang, M.F. Coexistence of Tradition and Modernity for Cultural Sustainability: The Teochew Opera Approach in Malaysia. Arts 2025, 14, 110. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts14050110
AMA Style
Lin Z, Ang MF. Coexistence of Tradition and Modernity for Cultural Sustainability: The Teochew Opera Approach in Malaysia. Arts. 2025; 14(5):110. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts14050110
Chicago/Turabian StyleLin, Ziqiao, and Mei Foong Ang. 2025. "Coexistence of Tradition and Modernity for Cultural Sustainability: The Teochew Opera Approach in Malaysia" Arts 14, no. 5: 110. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts14050110
APA StyleLin, Z., & Ang, M. F. (2025). Coexistence of Tradition and Modernity for Cultural Sustainability: The Teochew Opera Approach in Malaysia. Arts, 14(5), 110. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts14050110
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