Cyber Sex Crimes Targeting Children and Adolescents in South Korea: Incidents and Legal Challenges

Abstract

This review paper addresses the growing and increasingly sophisticated issue of cyber sexual crimes targeting children and adolescents. It explores specific examples of various sexual offenses, analyzes the limitations of current legal frameworks, and offers practical recommendations for prevention. As one of the world’s most advanced digital societies, South Korea has witnessed a significant rise in such crimes. These incidents are classified into clear criminal acts, tactics used to lure minors, and occurrences within virtual environments, all of which should be integral to educational programs for children and parents. This study also examines the UK’s Online Safety Act, recognized as a leading model in combating online sexual offenses, and highlights the deficiencies in South Korean law. Given that these crimes often extend into the offline world, exploit vulnerable groups with increasing subtlety, and are challenging for individuals to counteract alone, there is a critical need for specialized education for minors, metaverse training for parents, and the enhancement of both legal measures and international cooperation in this area.

1. Introduction

South Korea is one of the most advanced countries globally in terms of digital industry development. As of early 2024, the internet penetration rate in South Korea has reached 97.2%, one of the highest in the world (Datareportal 2024). This high penetration rate supports the widespread use of various digital services and platforms, playing a crucial role in Korea’s leadership in digital innovation and technological advancement. Additionally, South Korea’s rapid adoption of 5G technology has further accelerated the growth of the digital industry. As of March 2024, the number of 5G subscribers in Korea stood at approximately 33.4 million (Datareportal 2024). This 5G infrastructure enables high-speed internet services, which, in turn, facilitate various digital services and innovations (Reyns et al. 2011).

The internet allows individuals to communicate with others, form new relationships, and build social capital, thereby expanding social networks (San Miguel et al. 2020). It also enhances remote interactions and fosters new routines and lifestyles (Bossler and Holt 2009; Bossler et al. 2012). South Korea leads globally in smartphone and internet penetration rates, even surpassing countries like the United States, largely due to its advanced internet infrastructure and high-speed connectivity (J. Kim 2018). A survey conducted by Statistics Korea revealed that 85% of elementary school students use smartphones, and 76.1% of adolescents access mobile internet daily (Hwang et al. 2016). While advanced internet technology and widespread adoption present significant benefits, they also have clear drawbacks, particularly for vulnerable groups such as young children and women. Among South Korean adolescents, 29% exhibit tendencies toward smartphone addiction, while 15.5% are reported to be addicted to the internet (Carney 2015). Specifically, excessive engagement in online gaming and game streaming among male middle school students has been linked to reduced physical activity and diminished social interactions (Kim et al. 2023). The higher usage rate of smart devices among the younger population leads to active social interactions in the digital space, but these interactions are not always positive. People now encounter a greater variety of individuals and engage more deeply in each other’s lives than ever before.

The digital space can offer different experiences based on age and gender, potentially leading to various issues. Cyber crime refers to criminal activities committed using computer-based technology to intentionally harm individuals or groups (Halder and Jaishankar 2011). The dangers of cyber crime are heightened by the anonymity and distance it provides, allowing perpetrators to remain hidden while victims are exposed to crimes against their will (Oluga et al. 2014). Victims of cyber crime may suffer from attempted suicide, depression, tension, anxiety, and fear (Zhang et al. 2010), and they may also be subjected to repeated victimization (Ybarra et al. 2012). Various forms of cyber crime include computer hacking, online romance scams, online fraud, and identity theft (Internet Crime Complaint Center 2014; Oluga et al. 2014; Legal Information Institute 2015).

In recent years, South Korea has witnessed a rise in online sexual harassment, cyberbullying, and cyber crimes targeting minors, further exacerbating gender inequality and exploitation in the digital space, leading to significant psychological and social suffering for the victims (H. Kim 2023). It is important to note that there are also numerous cases of sex crimes against men, and this study does not exclusively focus on protecting women. Young boys are also significant victims in the digital space, and raising awareness of their victimization can help increase vigilance among adult men. Globally, various forms of cyber sex crimes, such as illegal filming, cyberstalking, and online sexual harassment, have become serious social issues. Particularly among children and adolescents, there is still a lack of awareness that cyber sex crimes are illegal and constitute criminal behavior. According to a survey conducted by the Korean Ministry of Education on the state of cyber sexual violence, 39.8% of children and adolescents who experienced or perpetrated verbal sexual harassment online reported feeling “nothing” afterward (Um and Yoo 2021).

Cyber crime poses a significant threat to children and adolescents (Internet Crime Complaint Center 2014;, as these individuals often lack the awareness and ability to identify or respond to criminal activities in cyberspace. They lack the judgment to identify harmful situations in digital environments and find it difficult to control their personal data (Jang and Ko 2023). Children may be exposed to potentially harmful marketing strategies and face privacy and financial issues (OECD 2021). Furthermore, the digital media industry, driven by profit motives, focuses on increasing the digital usage of children and adolescents, often neglecting concerns about online safety appropriate for their development (Stoilova et al. 2021; Jang and Ko 2023). Cyber crime causes depression, social isolation, and sleep disturbances among children and adolescents (Busch and McCarthy 2021; Horwood and Anglim 2018; Lepp et al. 2016), with its negative effects being particularly severe for these age groups.

Recent research has highlighted a significant rise in online grooming and child exploitation cases worldwide, particularly exacerbated by the increased time children spent online during the COVID-19 lockdowns. The Internet Watch Foundation recorded an unprecedented number of URLs containing child sexual abuse material in 2021, with over 252,000 reports (Internet Watch Foundation 2022). Additionally, platforms such as Instagram and WhatsApp, owned by Facebook, were implicated in 55% of grooming cases in England and Wales, with children often left to navigate these risks without adequate tools or support. Addressing this issue requires active involvement from both parents and schools. In particular, parental awareness and supervision of children’s and adolescents’ online activities are crucial. Equally important is the implementation of online safety education in schools, which can raise awareness and foster healthy and responsible online behavior among young users.

This study aims to investigate the various forms and cases of cyber sex crimes targeting children and adolescents while evaluating the international and domestic legal frameworks addressing online sexual offenses and highlighting their limitations. Furthermore, it seeks to propose recommendations for safeguarding future generations of children and adolescents.

2. Method

This study on digital sex crimes employed a comprehensive research methodology, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches to capture a broad range of data. The research began with an extensive literature review, analyzing both Korean and international academic publications on digital sex crimes. This review explored the theoretical foundations, legal frameworks, and societal impacts of digital sexual offenses, utilizing academic databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, and the Korea Citation Index. To further examine the prevalence and nature of sexual crimes, crime statistics were collected from national databases, including those of the Korean National Police Agency, as well as from international organizations like INTERPOL and Europol. Search terms such as “cyber sexual crimes, digital sexual crimes, online grooming, sexual exploitation of minors, metaverse sex crimes, online protection of children and adolescents, and Nth Room incident in South Korea” were employed to gather academic and media sources.

Additionally, to investigate new trends in cyber sexual crimes, media content analysis was conducted by reviewing news articles from both Korean and foreign sources. For content analysis, data were first collected and selected, followed by identifying specific themes or keywords in the selected materials, which were then defined as codes. During this process, meaningful labels were applied to different parts of the data to identify distinct patterns. Based on the coded data, common themes and categories were identified, and the meaning of the data were interpreted. Major newspapers and online platforms were consulted to assess public perception, media representation, and the societal responses to cyber sexual crimes. Furthermore, reports from counseling centers, such as the Korea Digital Sex Crime Victim Support Center, were analyzed to understand the victim support mechanisms in place. This was paired with documents from international counseling centers to provide a broader perspective on victim advocacy and the challenges faced by those reporting cyber sex crimes. This study reviewed foreign legal frameworks dealing with cyber sex crimes, comparing them with Korean laws. This cross-cultural legal comparison shed light on how different countries handle issues like cyber exploitation, data privacy, and law enforcement in the digital space. This multi-source, interdisciplinary approach enabled a thorough examination of cyber sex crimes, highlighting both the local and global aspects of this critical issue.

3. Cyber Sex Crimes

The term digital crime broadly encompasses all crimes associated with electronic devices or digital environments. It includes illegal activities such as unauthorized access to or manipulation of digital data and using computers and digital systems for unlawful purposes. In contrast, cyber crime specifically refers to crimes conducted over the internet or network systems, focusing on offenses such as hacking, ransomware, and DDoS attacks. Thus, cyber crime is a more narrowly defined category centered on network-based crimes (Phillips et al. 2022). The term digital sex crime is sometimes used in particular contexts, such as in South Korea, to emphasize issues like illegal filming or the non-consensual distribution of explicit images involving digital technology. However, in this study, the term cyber sex crime is adopted, as it is the most consistently used term across various academic papers and international organizations for referring to sexually exploitative crimes within digital spaces.

The results of identifying various forms of cyber sex crimes through content analysis are as follows: according to the Digital Sex Crime Victim Support Center in Korea, 33,437 cases of digital sex crimes were reported, averaging 91.6 cases per day (Cherrie 2023). These statistics reflect only detected incidents, with the actual number of undetected cases likely being significantly higher. In 2023, the center also reported the removal of 243,855 illegal sexually explicit images and videos, marking an almost eightfold increase compared to 2022. Cyber sex crimes can be categorized into three primary types: clear-cut criminal cases, cases involving methods used to lure children and adolescents, and newly emerging offenses.

Cyber sex crimes are not confined solely to the online domain. One of the significant dangers of cyber sex crimes is the connection between the online and offline worlds. Acts such as the distribution of illicit images or threats may appear to be conducted solely in the digital sphere, but ultimately, these crimes can and do manifest in the physical world. Therefore, it is a mistake to regard cyber sex crimes as occurring only within the cyber space. Viewing these crimes solely from a digital perspective can create gaps in criminal investigations and legal responses, leading to fragmented views of offenders and ultimately resulting in inadequate punishment. This section examines the various forms of cyber sexual crimes and explains how perpetrators lure children and adolescents from the online world to the offline world.

One of the major problems with cyber sex crimes is the limitations of legal and institutional responses. Although South Korea has made legal and institutional efforts to prevent and punish cyber sex crimes, significant limitations remain (H. Kim 2023). There is a need to continuously improve laws and systems to keep pace with the rapidly changing digital environment. Therefore, it is crucial to identify and analyze recent trends in cyber sex crimes and to conduct systematic research that proposes effective countermeasures. The purpose of this study is to raise awareness by identifying and analyzing recent, rapidly evolving cases of cyber sex crimes. Through this, this study aims to provide implications for how society’s laws and systems should be improved.

3.1. Prevalence and Nature of Sex Crimes

The Nth Room case in South Korea is frequently chosen as a key subject in the study of digital sex crimes due to its large scale, the exploitation of minors, and its societal impact. This case was a large-scale digital sex crime that occurred between 2018 and 2020. This incident involved the operation of secret chat rooms on Telegram, where illegal sexual content was distributed and sold, causing significant shock across Korean society. The perpetrators created secret chat rooms called “Nth Rooms” on Telegram, where they gathered participants and coerced women, adolescents, and children into producing sexually explicit photos and videos. This case involved online chat rooms where sexually explicit content, often involving children and adolescents, was shared and sold to tens of thousands of participants, making it a stark example of how digital platforms can facilitate large-scale sexual exploitation. The perpetrators used advanced digital technologies such as encryption and cryptocurrency to evade detection, highlighting the challenges in combating such crimes. The case also exposed significant gaps in South Korea’s legal framework, prompting calls for stronger laws and better victim protection. The operators threatened the victims with personal information or leveraged existing sexual images to demand more photos and videos, with some victims forced to comply under threats to their and their families’ safety. The estimated number of victims was 74, including 16 minors, with many coerced into producing explicit content under threats of violence. The widespread public outcry and the subsequent legal reforms make this case crucial for understanding the dynamics of cyber sex crimes and the vulnerabilities of children and adolescents in the online space.

In response to this incident, the law was amended to impose harsher penalties for the possession, distribution, and sale of illegal recordings, increasing the maximum sentence from five to seven years. Additionally, the process for promptly deleting illegal recordings upon the victim’s request was simplified, and technical support for this process was enhanced (Amnesty International 2022). The police and prosecutors’ offices established specialized investigation teams dedicated to cyber sex crimes, handling these cases with expertise. Furthermore, considering the international nature of cyber sex crimes, international cooperation was strengthened to block illegal websites hosted on overseas servers and to track down those involved.

These crimes are not unique to Korea. Cyber sex crimes targeting children and adolescents have reached unprecedented levels. In 2023, the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children (NCMEC) reported over 36.2 million incidents of suspected child sexual exploitation, largely driven by child sexual abuse material (CSAM). From these reports, 54.8 million images and 49.5 million videos were submitted, of which a significant portion were identified as unique content (NCMEC 2023). This rise underscores the increased proliferation of CSAM, largely facilitated by online platforms and social media (NCMEC 2024). INTERPOL’s International Child Sexual Exploitation (ICSE) database also highlights the severity of these crimes. The database contains 4.9 million images and videos and has contributed to the identification of 42,300 victims globally. This includes many children under the age of 13, with a significant number of cases involving severe abuse against infants and toddlers (U.S. Department of Justice 2024; INTERPOL 2024). A documentary that exposes the severity and build-up of cyber sex crimes against children through an experiment is “We Watch You”, produced in the Czech Republic and Slovakia as “Caught in the Net” (Czech: V síti). This documentary involved three sets designed to resemble ordinary homes, where adults posing as 12-year-old girls used fake accounts to access digital spaces. Immediately after account creation, men worldwide began contacting the 12-year-old girls, and within ten days, a total of 2458 men attempted to solicit nude photos, engage in gaslighting, issue threats, and groom the girls. The filmmakers even met 21 of these men in person. This documentary highlights the shocking cyber sex crimes against children and adolescents in an era where the format of crime has expanded online. The excessive openness of the internet presents a dangerous environment for children and adolescents, whose sexual values are not yet fully formed, while providing criminals with a convenient and accessible platform.

3.2. Methods of Luring Children and Adolescents

Instances where children and adolescents are lured into cyber sex crimes are closely related to online grooming. Online grooming refers to the process by which an adult establishes a relationship with a minor through the internet with the intent of sexual exploitation. This typically occurs on social media, chat apps, and gaming platforms. The perpetrator gains the trust of the minor and manipulates them into engaging in sexual activities or providing sexual images and videos. Online grooming can be divided into three distinct stages.

First, there is the approach and relationship-building stage, where the perpetrator befriends the minor and establishes trust. This is often achieved through compliments, gifts, and special attention, which make the minor feel reliant on and trusting of the perpetrator (Kloess et al. 2019). Euronews has shown that perpetrators use platforms like Instagram, WhatsApp, and Facebook to target and groom victims, often using these initial stages to manipulate young people into dangerous situations (Tidey 2020). Second, there is the personal information-gathering stage. After trust has been established, the perpetrator gradually extracts personal information from the minor. This information, such as the victim’s name, age, address, family background, and school details, is later used for blackmail or manipulation. The rise in online activities, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, has made it easier for perpetrators to gain access to vulnerable children, leading to a surge in reported grooming incidents (Smith 2022). In fact, the Internet Watch Foundation reported that 2021 saw a record number of online sexual abuse cases. Third, there is the introduction of sexual content stage, where the perpetrator begins introducing sexual conversations, images, or videos, persuading or pressuring the minor to engage with them. This stage often progresses to blackmail and exploitation, where the perpetrator uses the sexual material provided by the minor to blackmail them or demand further sexual content. If the minor refuses to comply with the perpetrator’s demands, they are often threatened with the public distribution of their images.

A significant concern with online grooming is that it can easily escalate into offline crimes. After the grooming stage, blackmail and threats typically follow, leading to potential physical sexual assault or abduction when the online interaction transitions into a real-life encounter. However, due to the anonymity and global nature of the internet, it can be challenging to track down perpetrators and respond legally (Park 2023). There have been concerns that presenting specific case examples might provide information to potential offenders; however, it is believed that such detailed examples will assist children and parents in recognizing and confronting their own risks. Figure 1 is actual cases of online grooming.

Case 1. Approaching through interests: In this method, the perpetrator gathers information about a child through social media. If the child likes dogs, the perpetrator pretends to also like dogs to establish a connection. If the child likes indie bands, the perpetrator may claim to be a singer-songwriter. The perpetrator then asks the child to send photos or videos of their body, promising to share their voice in return. After the child, feeling obligated due to the established relationship, sends a photo, the perpetrator uses it to blackmail the child, threatening to expose the image to the child’s friends and family unless the child complies with further demands. Research shows that perpetrators often exploit children’s vulnerabilities by pretending to have similar hobbies or interests, making the child feel comfortable and eventually desensitized to sharing personal information or explicit content (Whittle et al. 2014). Additionally, Kloess et al. (2019) emphasize how trust is developed through personal connections in such grooming cases, leading to a quick escalation in demands for explicit materials.

Case 2. Offering jobs or entertainment opportunities: Perpetrators lure children by advertising opportunities such as becoming a fitting model, promising that the child can earn money while attending school. Initially, they ask for photos in tight-fitting clothing, but gradually escalate their demands to request nude photos. When the child refuses, the perpetrator threatens to inform the child’s parents and school, falsely claiming that the child has been sending explicit photos. There is an actual case where a middle school student was coerced into sending over 600 photos. Another tactic involves approaching a child near their school, complimenting their dancing skills, and inviting them to audition for an entertainment agency. Before the audition, the perpetrator demands body photos to assess whether the child has the right physique to become an idol, later using these photos for blackmail. This grooming method aligns with the process described by Kloess et al. (2019), where offenders initially build trust by offering something desirable to the victim, such as job opportunities or praise. Once trust is established, the demands for more explicit content increase. Whittle et al. (2014) further highlight how victims often feel trapped and manipulated into continuing the interaction, believing they are pursuing legitimate opportunities, only to be blackmailed later.

Case 3. Using prizes as bait to obtain IDs: In this method, the perpetrator promises to send an iPhone or iPad in exchange for the child’s social media ID. Once they have the ID, they gather personal information and other details about the child. The perpetrator then pressures the child to sell their account information, which the child may consider insignificant. However, the perpetrator uses this information to obtain further personal details and begin blackmailing the child. Male students are also targets of such exploitation, and the Korea Digital Sex Crime Victim Support Center has reported cases involving middle and high school students, as well as boys as young as 10 years old. As Lorenzo-Dus et al. (2016) explain, offenders often employ trust-building strategies and small requests initially, such as asking for social media IDs, before escalating to more significant personal demands. The grooming process is further solidified through psychological manipulation, where offenders gradually gain control over their victims (Whittle et al. 2014).

3.3. New Trends in Cyber Sexual Crimes: In Virtual Worlds

Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, the influence of virtual worlds, particularly those represented by the metaverse, has grown significantly. Alongside this growth, the number of sexual crimes occurring in these virtual environments has also risen sharply. Children and adolescents, who are active participants in these virtual worlds, have become prime targets for such crimes. Unfortunately, there is currently a lack of legal frameworks to address situations where an adult sexually harasses a child’s avatar in these environments. For example, over 70% of users on ZEPETO, a 3D avatar social networking platform operated by Korea’s NAVER (South Korea’s leading portal site and search engine), are under 18 years old. Similarly, in the United States, more than half of teenagers use the platform Roblox. According to the Korean Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, the number of adolescent victims of cyber sex crimes rose from 111 in 2018 to 1481 in 2021, marking a nearly 13-fold increase.

In the metaverse, users have been observed drawing nude images on virtual walls (Figure 2 and Figure 3), making obscene remarks toward female avatars, forcing avatars to drink alcohol Figure 4, or walking around naked Figure 5. Sexual harassment Figure 6 and Figure 7 or assault within the metaverse is also becoming increasingly common. These virtual crimes can sometimes carry over into the real world. In 2022, a 38-year-old man in the United States, originally from Korea, used ZEPETO to demand photos, voice recordings, and even a marriage vow from an 11-year-old girl. The girl’s parents reported the case to the police. However, despite the severity of the crime and the conditions for extradition being met, the Korean prosecution dismissed the request for extradition. Criminal behavior evolves rapidly, and perpetrators continuously adapt, making regulation difficult. Therefore, it is urgent to establish relevant legal frameworks and regulations. While some metaverse platforms have introduced measures like setting proximity limits between avatars, others argue that such measures should remain under the companies’ self-regulation. However, given that the patterns of crime in online and offline settings are similar, and that online sexual crimes can easily extend into the real world, they should not be taken lightly.

4. Legal Framework for Cyber Sex Crimes

4.1. UK: Online Safety Act 2023

One of the most exemplary cases in regulating online sex crimes is the United Kingdom’s Online Safety Act, which was passed into law on 26 October 2023. The Online Safety Act 2023 was established by the UK government to regulate illegal and harmful content online, with a particular focus on preventing various forms of online sex crimes, including child sexual abuse material, and strengthening the accountability of online platforms (GOV.UK 2024). Firstly, the law mandates that platforms must remove and prevent illegal content. Platforms are required to detect and remove illegal content, such as child sexual abuse material, extreme sexual violence, and unlawful images, and take preventive measures to ensure such content does not occur. Secondly, to protect children, the law requires platforms to implement technical measures such as age verification and assurance systems to prevent minors from accessing harmful content. The compulsory nature of age verification and assurance technologies significantly enhances the responsibility of platforms. Thirdly, the act introduces new criminal offenses, including cyberflashing, which is defined as the act of sending unsolicited sexual images, and the distribution of intimate images without consent, both of which are now subject to criminal prosecution. Furthermore, platforms are held legally accountable if they fail to promptly remove illegal content.

This law places a strong emphasis on child protection, mandating that platforms take measures to protect children not only from sex crimes but also from harmful content, such as self-harm, suicide, eating disorders, bullying, and dangerous stunts. Specifically, if providers fail to comply with specific child safety duties or the law’s enforcement notices related to child sexual abuse and exploitation within their services, both the company and its senior management could face fines and criminal liability.

In January 2024, a case in the UK involving a 16-year-old girl who was sexually assaulted by a group of strangers while wearing a VR device on a metaverse platform drew significant attention. This “metaverse group sexual assault” case was reported to have been officially investigated by British police, although no charges or prosecutions were made. The primary reason for this was that no actual physical harm occurred, as the UK’s sexual offense laws define rape and sexual assault strictly in terms of physical contact. Additionally, identifying the perpetrators in such an anonymous online environment, especially if they are not UK nationals, poses significant challenges. Nonetheless, this case is significant as it marked the first official police investigation into a sexual crime occurring in the metaverse.

4.2. South Korea

In South Korea, the legal framework addressing cyber sex crimes primarily consists of three laws: the Act on Special Cases Concerning the Punishment of Sexual Crimes, the Act on Promotion of Information and Communications Network Utilization and Information Protection, and the Act on the Protection of Children and Juveniles from Sexual Abuse. The Act on Special Cases Concerning the Punishment of Sexual Crimes particularly imposes severe penalties for illegal filming and distribution, with up to seven years of imprisonment for the distribution of sexual images or videos recorded without consent. The Act on Promotion of Information and Communications Network Utilization and Information Protection regulates various illegal activities conducted via information and communications networks, including defamation and insults. It also prohibits the distribution of illegal sexual images or videos and allows for the punishment of those who disseminate such content. The Act on the Protection of Children and Juveniles from Sexual Abuse focuses on protecting minors from sexual crimes, imposing severe penalties for the production and distribution of child sexual exploitation material. This law also penalizes the possession of such material and mandates the registration and public disclosure of information about sex offenders when necessary.

Following the aforementioned Nth Room case, South Korea has strengthened its legal measures against cyber sex crimes. A special law was enacted to protect victims of cyber sex crimes and prevent such crimes, and the Cyber Sex Crime Victim Support Center was expanded to provide legal counseling and psychological treatment to victims.

4.3. Limitations of South Korean Law on Cyber Sex Crimes

The UK’s Online Safety Act 2023 clearly defines the procedures and responsibilities for platforms in swiftly removing and preventing illegal content. The law explicitly mandates platforms to actively detect and remove illegal content and requires the implementation of age verification and assurance systems. This approach is more effective in addressing illegal and harmful content in a rapidly changing digital environment. In contrast, South Korea’s approach lacks clear definitions of platform responsibilities, and the scope of platform accountability is limited, resulting in a more passive role for platforms in protecting children and victims of sex crimes. It is crucial to shift the responsibility for removing and preventing illegal content from individuals to platforms. Children and adolescents, who may not yet have the ability to identify and filter illegal content, can be excessively exposed to harmful materials. It is practically impossible for individual households or parents to fully control the content that children are exposed to. Therefore, as in the UK, it is necessary to implement mandatory age verification and assurance technologies at the platform level to fundamentally prevent children and adolescents from accessing harmful content.

One of the most significant differences between UK and South Korean law is the focus on prevention versus post-incident response. The UK’s Online Safety Act 2023 emphasizes prevention and the protection of vulnerable groups before a crime occurs, whereas South Korean law primarily addresses measures after an incident has taken place. It is a well-established principle that prevention is more important than punishment when it comes to crimes, including online sex crimes. Despite the increasing number of crimes, South Korea faces a shortage of personnel and resources for investigating cyber sex crimes, and the process for victims to report these crimes and receive legal recourse is often complex and time-consuming (H. Kim 2023).

Given that sexual crimes leave indelible scars on victims and destroy their dignity as human beings, it is essential to emphasize platform accountability, pre-emptively block illegal content, and implement systems for verifying users’ ages. This approach would help prevent cyber sex crimes from occurring, minimize victimization, and ultimately reduce social costs. Additionally, continuous efforts should be made to educate and raise awareness among platform users regarding the prevention of cyber sex crimes.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, this paper has explored the various forms of cyber sex crimes, emphasizing the connection between the online and offline worlds. It has highlighted the limitations of current legal responses, particularly in South Korea, and the pressing need for stronger international cooperation, as exemplified by cases such as the “Nth Room” scandal. Furthermore, this study examined how perpetrators lure children and adolescents through online grooming and addressed the emerging issue of sexual crimes within virtual environments like the metaverse. The findings stress the urgent need for updated laws and systems that can effectively respond to these rapidly evolving digital threats.

This paper also reviewed legal frameworks in the UK and South Korea, with a particular focus on the UK’s Online Safety Act 2023, which prioritizes prevention by requiring platforms to actively remove illegal content and implement age verification systems. In contrast, South Korea’s approach tends to focus more on post-incident responses, placing less responsibility on platforms. This paper advocates for stronger preventive measures in South Korea, including greater platform accountability, mandatory age verification, and enhanced victim support, to more effectively combat cyber sex crimes and protect vulnerable populations.

Crimes in the digital environment are rarely perpetrated by children themselves. The most important task is to establish protective barriers to ensure that no victims emerge online. When it comes to cyber crimes, believing that individuals can prevent such crimes through their efforts or blaming victims for these crimes is counterproductive to crime resolution and reduction. These issues cannot be addressed by the efforts of individuals or single households alone. Perpetrators can easily access children and adolescents, cleverly exploiting vulnerable groups (Kravchuk 2021). It is imperative to develop and implement technologies and policies that prevent and block sexual predators from accessing children, adolescents, and vulnerable women before harm occurs (Smith and de Villiers-Botha 2023). To prevent cyber sex crimes, several practical measures need to be adopted.

Firstly, there is a need for education on managing IDs and personal information, particularly for children. IDs, online usernames, and passwords should never be shared with anyone. Additionally, children should be aware of the risks associated with sharing identifiable information, such as photos in school uniforms or images revealing their school or neighborhood, and they should avoid posting such information on social media. Similarly, children should be cautious about adding friends on social media, as they may feel validated by having many friends and accept all friend requests, often without knowing who these individuals truly are. On platforms like the metaverse or social media, where various people are easily connected, children and adolescents become easy targets for sexual predators. These predators, often referred to as hunters, are skilled at identifying and exploiting vulnerable individuals.

Furthermore, it is essential to manage children differently from other consumer groups and prevent their exploitation by industries (Smith and de Villiers-Botha 2023; UNICEF 2018). Efforts should be made to protect children by minimizing their exposure to advertisements and preventing access to harmful sites, prioritizing their safety over business innovation or profit generation. Official restrictions on advertising should be strengthened to ensure that the best interests of children take precedence over profit-making (UNICEF 2018). In Australia, the establishment of the Office of the eSafety Commissioner under the Enhancing Online Safety Act of 2015 has been instrumental in managing various crimes affecting children and adolescents (Jang and Ko 2023; OECD 2021). In Canada, the Center for Child Protection (C3P) addresses online safety issues and develops strategies to protect children online (OECD 2021). Similarly, South Korea should establish protective measures through dedicated centers to ensure the safety of children online. Education on online safety, privacy, and cyber crimes must be conducted repeatedly and organically within both the home and school environments. Parents and teachers should inform children and adolescents about various cases of online crimes and actively engage with the online platforms and apps they use, encouraging discussions and shared activities together. Appropriate guidance and supervision from parents and teachers, along with continuous attention to children and adolescents, are critical factors in ensuring their protection (Jang and Suh 2021; Song and Jang 2021).

Secondly, there is a need for education on the use of the metaverse, particularly for parents. Previous studies suggest the implementation of AI-based privacy control protocols that automatically detect harmful content for children in real-time environments (Jang and Ko 2023; Ramezanian et al. 2021). Additionally, there is a need to develop technologies that allow parents to maintain proper trust with their children while effectively implementing control measures (Hartikainen et al. 2016). The current use of child protection apps focuses mainly on limiting and monitoring digital activities, which may not be enough to protect children authentically (Wang et al. 2021). A more effective method might be educating parents on the use of the metaverse. Unlike previous generations, children and adolescents communicate within the metaverse through platforms like Roblox or ZEPETO (Um and Yoo 2021). Rather than outright banning these platforms, parents should consider joining the metaverse themselves to understand what their children are doing, how they are interacting, and with whom. By understanding the metaverse and discussing safe usage practices with their children, parents can monitor their children’s online activities more effectively and swiftly respond to potential risks (Stoilova et al. 2021; UNICEF 2018). Such education plays a crucial role in providing children with a safe online environment and helps them develop the ability to protect themselves in the digital world. Parents should regularly engage in conversations with their children about their experiences in the metaverse, ensuring that children feel comfortable reporting any suspicious activities. Specifically, children should know how to refuse, confront, and report requests for unwanted sexual activities or images and should be familiar with setting boundaries (Finkelhor et al. 2022).

Thirdly, there is a need to strengthen laws related to cyber sex crimes and enhance international cooperation. UNICEF emphasizes the necessity of a robust legal framework to address cyber sex crimes (UNICEF 2020). According to a UNICEF report, many countries have yet to establish or update comprehensive laws addressing online child sexual exploitation and abuse (UNICEF 2022). Because cyber sex crimes are not confined by physical spaces and can occur across borders, criminals can easily continue their activities by hosting servers in countries with less stringent laws.

The UK Online Safety Act is widely seen as a crucial advancement in addressing online harm, especially when it poses risks to children through activities like grooming and exploitation. While the Act’s primary goal of protecting children has received strong support, it has sparked debate around its requirement for platforms to remove harmful content in cases where end-to-end encryption is in place. Encryption serves a vital role in safeguarding user privacy, making it difficult for platforms to access or monitor the content of private communications. However, when it comes to child protection, some argue that privacy concerns may need to be re-evaluated to ensure that children are not exposed to online dangers. Solutions like client-side scanning, which allows content to be checked on a user’s device before it is encrypted, have been proposed as a compromise. While such measures raise legitimate privacy concerns, they also present a potential path forward in ensuring children’s safety without completely undermining encryption. Ultimately, this is a complex issue that requires careful balancing of privacy rights with the urgent need to protect children. For many, protecting children remains a top priority, but it is essential to explore solutions that respect privacy while still enabling effective monitoring of harmful online content.

Ultimately, cyber sex crimes are a transnational issue, necessitating international cooperation (Quayle and Koukopoulos 2019; Kim 2023). Countries must share information on cyber sex crimes, collaborate on joint investigations and law enforcement, and strengthen global responses (Jang and Ko 2023). UNESCO also advocates for international agreements and the establishment of global networks to prevent online sex crimes (UNICEF 2022). Such international cooperation is crucial for effectively preventing and responding to cyber sex crimes, ensuring that children and adolescents worldwide can grow up in a safe digital environment.

This study underscores the disruptive impact of cyber crime on the lives of children and adolescents and offers recommendations for future research. It is essential to conduct cross-cultural and systematic reviews that examine how digital and cyber crimes are perceived, legislated, and managed across different countries. Additionally, further empirical research should work to clarify definitions, assess the impacts of legal and social systems on various demographics, and evaluate the effectiveness of policy interventions. These efforts would strengthen the theoretical framework and contribute to a globally cohesive approach to combating digital and cyber crimes.

Protecting future generations, particularly children and adolescents, from crime and fostering a healthy cyber environment where they can thrive is a sacred duty of adults. Crimes in the online world are no different from those in the offline world, and considering the scope and speed at which information spreads, online crimes can be even more brutal and severe. Governments, international organizations, and civil society must collaborate to adopt systematic approaches to the prevention and response to cyber sex crimes. Cyber crime has evolved into a societal responsibility, transcending the boundaries of individual concern (Bae 2021). Healthy children and adolescents, both mentally and physically, are the hope of future societies—and our hope as well.