Can the Cultural Transmission of Trans-Affirming Values Serve as a Protective Factor for Transgender/Gender-Nonconforming Youth?
Abstract
:1. Historical and Societal Context of TGNC Discrimination in the U.S.
The Current Study
2. Gender Normativity and Its Connection to TGNC Oppression
2.1. Institutionalized Gender Normativity and Discrimination
2.1.1. TGNC Youth Discrimination, Marginalization, and Victimization
2.1.2. Marginalization in School Policy
2.2. Negative Outcomes
Protective Factors and Coping of TGNC Youth
3. Limitations of Prior Research and Connections to Theory
Connections to Social Learning Theory
4. Methods: Addressing Gaps in TGNC Youth Research through Qualitative Analysis
Data Sources and Analysis of Data
5. Reflections on Navigating Discrimination in School Environments
5.1. Negative School Experiences
5.1.1. Bullying
5.1.2. Differential Staff Treatment
5.2. Difficulty Reporting Discrimination
Connections to Mental Health
6. Community Perspectives on Gender Diversity Policies in Schools
6.1. Opposition to Gender-Inclusive Policies
6.2. Supportive Perspectives on Gender-Inclusive Policies
“I think it’s really important here that we talk about these policies; that we get less involved in the beliefs and the moral background that we can squabble over and more involved in talking about the safety of our children. 60% of LGBT youth in school feel unsafe because of their sexual orientation. 28% have been bullied in bathrooms. 32% have been bullied in gym class. I could read you this whole page of statistics, but it’s out there that we need a policy in order to protect these students”(PM1, CM38).
“The person most likely to experience violence in the bathroom is actually the trans person. No, not the cisgender person. We have little to no records showing that the circumstances that everyone is afraid of—about boys pretending to be girls sneaking into the girls’ restrooms. We have no data that actually shows that, but we do have a lot of data showing trans people getting chased or assaulted inside of bathrooms”(PM3, CM34).
“For those amongst us who only get their primary information from the internet and gossip, trans children are not predators. In fact, they are victims of predators”(PM3, CM40).
“I’m a transgender male. There are a lot of things that I am. I am not a criminal. I am not a pedophile. I am not a predator. Neither are these children”(PM2, CM25).
“We have passed laws that protect the rights of African Americans, women, people with limited abilities and disabilities, and many other groups to protect their basic human rights. There is no difference for trans kids”(PM4, CM9).
“I read the policy line-by-line. I see it as clear guidance that would assist teachers, staff, and parents in navigating the how-to in demonstrating respect and support of our gender-diverse students”(PM1, CM30).
6.2.1. The Importance of Policy, Supportive Environments, and Safe Spaces
“I firmly believe that this policy will protect all children in our schools, and enhance learning and ensure a safe environment for all children despite their gender identity”(PM1, CM26).
“Kids just want to be kids, and should have the right to be kids… All kids should have the same basic right to have access to a restroom, locker room, dorm room, and be identified by the gender that they identify with”(PM4, CM9).
“So, I myself, as a mother of four, have been blessed to really know a transgender child. And my request is that all of you that have so much fear, just like every other parent that ever has been, please get to know a child, and a parent, and a family that loves and wants to protect their transgender child, just as you do”(PM2, CM40).
6.2.2. Supportive Individuals and Peer Groups
7. The Role of Societal Norms and Policy Implementation in Supporting TGNC Youth
8. Applying Social Learning Theory to Disrupt Gender Normativity
Leveraging Social Learning Theory to Support TGNC Youth
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
1 | An intersectional critique of “resilience” highlights that the concept can inadvertently place undue responsibility on marginalized individuals to overcome systemic barriers, rather than addressing the structural inequalities that necessitate resilience. This perspective recognizes that factors such as race, class, gender identity, and disability intersect to create unique experiences of oppression, which can amplify the challenges faced by TGNC youth. |
2 | Every week, this non-profit holds one group session dedicated to LGBTQIA+ youth aged 13–17 and another session targeted at youth aged 18–24. The research team attended both sessions. |
3 | The town halls aimed to provide a platform for young adults within the TGNC/LGBTQIA+ communities to discuss their experiences openly. Data on specific participant gender identities, such as transgender status, were not collected. Anonymity was ensured by not recording any identifying information. |
References
- Airton, Lee, Kyle Kirkup, Allison McMillan, and Jacob DesRochers. 2019. What is “gender expression”? How a new and nebulous human rights construct is taking shape in Ontario school board policy documents. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue canadienne de l’éducation 42: 1154–82. [Google Scholar]
- Alvarez, Rodrigo Gonzalez, Luis Armando Para, Mijntje Ten Brummelaar, Lucy Avraamidou, and Monica Lopez Lopez. 2022. Resilience among LGBTQIA+ youth in out-of-home care: A scoping review. Child Abuse & Neglect 129: 105660. [Google Scholar]
- Baldwin, Alfred L. 1973. 2: Social Learning. Review of Research in Education 1: 34–57. [Google Scholar]
- Bandura, Albert, and Richard H. Walters. 1963. Social Learning and Personality Development. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston. [Google Scholar]
- Bandura, Albert, and Richard H. Walters. 1977. Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, vol. 1. [Google Scholar]
- Bandura, Albert. 1986. Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, p. 2. [Google Scholar]
- Barclay, Lizabeth. 1982. Social learning theory: A framework for discrimination research. Academy of Management Review 7: 587–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Biegel, Stuart. 2018. The Right to Be Out: Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in America’s Public Schools. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. [Google Scholar]
- Buist, Carrie L., and Codie Stone. 2014. Transgender victims and offenders: Failures of the United States criminal justice system and the necessity of queer criminology. Critical Criminology 22: 35–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burns, Janice C., Deanna Y. Cooke, and Christine Schweidler. 2011. A Short Guide to Community Based Participatory Action Research. A Community Research Lab Guide. Available online: https://www.ktpathways.ca/system/files/resources/2019-02/cbpar.pdf (accessed on 6 June 2024).
- Bussey, Kay, and Albert Bandura. 1999. Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review 106: 676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Charmaz, Kathy. 2014. Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide through Qualitative Analysis, 2nd ed. Newcastle upon Tyne: Sage. First published 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Collier, Kate L., Gabriel Van Beusekom, Henny M. W. Bos, and Theo G. M. Sandfort. 2013. Sexual orientation and gender identity/expression related peer victimization in adolescence: A systematic review of associated psychosocial and health outcomes. Journal of Sex Research 50: 299–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Conry-Murray, Clare, and Elliot Turiel. 2012. Jimmy’s baby doll and Jenny’s truck: Young children’s reasoning about gender norms. Child Development 83: 146–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Currie, Sean, Maralee Mayberry, and Tiffany Chenneville. 2012. Destabilizing anti-gay environments through gay-straight alliances: Possibilities and limitations through shifting discourses. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas 85: 56–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dietert, Michelle, and Dianne Dentice. 2015. The transgender military experience: Their battle for workplace rights. SAGE Open 5: 2158244015584231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Donovan, James M. 2016. Half-Baked: The demand by for-profit businesses for religious exemptions from selling to same-sex couples. Loy. Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review 49: 39. [Google Scholar]
- England, Edith. 2022. ‘Homelessness is a queer experience.’: Utopianism and mutual aid as survival strategies for homeless trans people. Housing Studies, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Espelage, Dorothy L., Kris Bosworth, and Thomas R. Simon. 2000. Examining the social context of bullying behaviors in early adolescence. Journal of Counseling & Development 78: 326–33. [Google Scholar]
- Feldman, Martha S., Kaj Sköldberg, Ruth Nicole Brown, and Debra Horner. 2004. Making sense of stories: A rhetorical approach to narrative analysis. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 14: 147–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Felner, Jennifer K., Omar Dyette, Terry Dudley, Amanda Farr, and Stacey Horn. 2022. Participatory action research to address aging out of LGBTQ-supportive youth programs in Chicago. Journal of LGBT Youth 19: 109–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Glickman, Deanna J. 2015. Fashioning children: Gender restrictive dress codes as an entry point for the trans school to prison pipeline. American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law 24: 263. [Google Scholar]
- Gooding, Anita R., Bobbi Ali Zaman, Sam J. Harrell, Sam Collins, Miriam J. Abelson, and Ben Anderson-Nathe. 2023. Situated agency: How LGBTQ youth navigate and create queer (ed) space. Journal of LGBT Youth 20: 524–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goodwin, M., and Erwin Chemerinsky. 2019. The transgender military ban: Preservation of discrimination through transformation. Northwestern University Law Review 114: 751–807. [Google Scholar]
- Gower, Amy L., G. Nic Rider, Camille Brown, Barbara J. McMorris, Eli Coleman, Lindsay A. Taliaferro, and Marla E. Eisenberg. 2018. Supporting transgender and gender diverse youth: Protection against emotional distress and substance use. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 55: 787–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Greytak, Emily A., and Joseph G. Kosciw. 2014. Predictors of US teachers’ intervention in anti-lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender bullying and harassment. Teaching Education 25: 410–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hargie, Owen D. W., David H. Mitchell, and Ian J. A. Somerville. 2017. ‘People have a knack of making you feel excluded if they catch on to your difference’: Transgender experiences of exclusion in sport. International Review for the Sociology of Sport 52: 223–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hatchel, Tyler, Alberto Valido, Kris T. De Pedro, Yuanhong Huang, and Dorothy L. Espelage. 2019. Minority stress among transgender adolescents: The role of peer victimization, school belonging, and ethnicity. Journal of Child and Family Studies 28: 2467–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Herbert, Heather, Paul Swank, Karen Smith, and Susan Landry. 2004. Maternal support for play and language across early childhood. Early Education and Development 15: 93–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hereth, Jane E. 2024. “I don’t think the police think we’re human”: Legal socialization among young transgender women. Journal of Homosexuality 71: 2175–99. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hetzel, Carole J., and K. Mann. 2021. The social psychological dynamics of transgender and gender nonconforming identity formation, negotiation, and affirmation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 38: 2566–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hirschtritt, Matthew E., Emily F. Dauria, Brandon D. L. Marshall, and Marina Tolou-Shams. 2018. Sexual minority, justice-involved youth: A hidden population in need of integrated mental health, substance use, and sexual health services. Journal of Adolescent Health 63: 421–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Horton, Cal. 2023. “I never wanted her to feel shame”: Parent reflections on supporting a transgender child. Journal of LGBT Youth 20: 231–47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hughto, Jaclyn M. White, Sari L. Reisner, and John E. Pachankis. 2015. Transgender stigma and health: A critical review of stigma determinants, mechanisms, and interventions. Social Science & Medicine 147: 222–31. [Google Scholar]
- Hunsberger, Bruce E. 1983. Apostasy: A social learning perspective. Review of Religious Research 25: 21–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jenness, Valerie, Lori Sexton, and Jennifer Sumner. 2019. Sexual victimization against transgender women in prison: Consent and coercion in context. Criminology 57: 603–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jones, Constance. 2010. Archival data: Advantages and disadvantages for research in psychology. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 4: 1008–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jonnson, Melissa R., Brian M. Bird, Shanna M. Y. Li, and Jodi L. Viljoen. 2019. The prevalence of sexual and gender minority youth in the justice system: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior 46: 999–1019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Juban, Rusty L., and Andrė L. Honorėe. 2020. Evolution of transgender employment discrimination in US courts. Journal of Business Diversity 20: 90–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Katz-Wise, Sabra L., Margaret Rosario, and Michael Tsappis. 2016. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth and family acceptance. Pediatric Clinics 63: 1011–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Katz-Wise, Sabra. L., Stephanie Budge, Joe Orovecz, Bradford Nguyen, Brett Nava-Coulter, and Katharine Thomson. 2017. Imagining the future: Perspectives among youth and caregivers in the trans youth family study. Journal of Counseling Psychology 64: 26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kedler, Steven H., Deanna Hoelscher, and Cheryl L. Perry. 2015. How individuals, environments, and health behaviors interact. Health behavior: Theory, Research, and Practice 159: 144–49. [Google Scholar]
- Koch, Katie, and Richard Bales. 2008. Transgender employment discrimination. UCLA Women’s Law Journal 17: 243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Koppelman, Andrew. 2014. Gay rights, religious accommodations, and the purposes of antidiscrimination law. Southern California Law Review 88: 619. [Google Scholar]
- Kosciw, Joseph G., Emily A. Greytak, Adrian D. Zongrone, Caitlin M. Clark, and Nhan L. Truong. 2018. The 2017 National School Climate Survey: The Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Youth in Our Nation’s Schools. Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network (GLSEN). Available online: https://www.glsen.org/sites/default/files/2019-10/GLSEN-2017-National-School-Climate-Survey-NSCS-Full-Report.pdf (accessed on 7 June 2024).
- Kosciw, Joseph G., Neal A. Palmer, Ryan M. Kull, and Emily A. Greytak. 2013. The effect of negative school climate on academic outcomes for LGBT youth and the role of in-school supports. Journal of School Violence 12: 45–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lejano, Raul P., and Ching Leong. 2012. A hermeneutic approach to explaining and understanding public controversies. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 22: 793–814. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lofland, John D., David Snow, Leon Anderson, and Lyn H. Lofland. 2006. Developing Analysis in Analyzing Social Settings: A Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, pp. 195–219. [Google Scholar]
- Marion, Nancy E., and Willard M. Oliver. 2011. Public Policy of Crime and Criminal Justice. New York: Pearson Higher Ed. [Google Scholar]
- Marx, Robert A., Leah Marion Roberts, and Carol T. Nixon. 2017. When care and concern are not enough: School personnel’s development as allies for trans and gender non-conforming students. Social Sciences 6: 11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McCann, Edward, and Michael Brown. 2019. Homelessness among youth who identify as LGBTQ+: A systematic review. Journal of Clinical Nursing 28: 2061–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- McGuire, Jenifer K., Charles R. Anderson, Russell B. Toomey, and Stephen T. Russell. 2010. School climate for transgender youth: A mixed method investigation of student experiences and school responses. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 39: 1175–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Meyer, Doug. 2014. Resisting hate crime discourse: Queer and intersectional challenges to neoliberal hate crime laws. Critical Criminology 22: 113–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mezzalira, Selene, Cristiano Scandurra, Fabrizio Mezza, Marina Miscioscia, Marco Innamorati, and Vincenzo Bochicchio. 2022. Gender felt pressure, affective domains, and mental health outcomes among transgender and gender diverse (TGD) children and adolescents: A systematic review with developmental and clinical implications. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20: 785. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Palmer, Neal A., and Emily A. Greytak. 2017. LGBTQ student victimization and its relationship to school discipline and justice system involvement. Criminal Justice Review 42: 163–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pipkin, Alastair, Luke Ward, Sue Cotton, and Christina Shearn. 2023. The experience of navigating sexuality for transgender and gender non-conforming people: A meta-ethnographic review. International Journal of Transgender Health 16: 1–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Plemons, Eric. 2019. A capable surgeon and a willing electrologist: Challenges to the expansion of transgender surgical care in the United States. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 33: 282–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Powell, Melissa D., and Linda D. Ladd. 2010. Bullying: A review of the literature and implications for family therapists. The American Journal of Family Therapy 38: 189–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Proctor, Aaron R., and Nancy E. Krusen. 2017. Time to ask and tell: Voices of older gay and bisexual male veterans regarding community services. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services 29: 415–25. [Google Scholar]
- Reisner, Sari L., Emily A. Greytak, Jeffrey T. Parsons, and Michele L. Ybarra. 2015. Gender minority social stress in adolescence: Disparities in adolescent bullying and substance use by gender identity. The Journal of Sex Research 52: 243–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Restar, Arjee, Harry Jin, Aaron Breslow, Sari L. Reisner, Matthew Mimiaga, Sean Cahill, and Jaclyn MW Hughto. 2020. Legal gender marker and name change is associated with lower negative emotional response to gender-based mistreatment and improve mental health outcomes among trans populations. SSM-Population Health 11: 100595. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rose, Heather, and Glenn E. Martin. 2008. Locking down civil rights: Criminal record-based discrimination. Race/Ethnicity: Multidisciplinary Global Contexts 2: 13–19. [Google Scholar]
- Schutt, Russell K. 2015. Investigating the Social World: The Process and Practice of Research, 8th ed. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. [Google Scholar]
- Shaffer, David R. 2009. Social and Personality Development, 6th ed. Belmont: Wadsworth. [Google Scholar]
- Shank, Ashley. 2021. Disrupting Gender Normativity Through a Social Learning Framework. Master’s thesis, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV, USA, May 1. [Google Scholar]
- Simons, Lisa, Sheree M. Schrager, Leslie F. Clark, Marvin Belzer, and Johanna Olson. 2013. Parental support and mental health among transgender adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health 53: 791–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Singh, Anneliese A., Sarah E. Meng, and Anthony W. Hansen. 2014. “I am my own gender”: Resilience strategies of trans youth. Journal of Counseling & Development 92: 208–18. [Google Scholar]
- Skinner, Burrhus Frederic. 1957. Verbal Behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. [Google Scholar]
- Spinner, Lauren, Lindsey Cameron, and Rachel Calogero. 2018. Peer toy play as a gateway to children’s gender flexibility: The effect of (counter) stereotypic portrayals of peers in children’s magazines. Sex Roles 79: 314–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stone, Amy L. 2018. Gender panics about transgender children in religious right discourse. Journal of LGBT Youth 15: 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Strauss, A. 1988. Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. Newbury Park: Sage. [Google Scholar]
- Stroumsa, Daphna. 2014. The state of transgender health care: Policy, law, and medical frameworks. American Journal of Public Health 104: e31–e38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sumner, Jennifer, and Lori Sexton. 2016. Same difference: The “dilemma of difference” and the incarceration of transgender prisoners. Law & Social Inquiry 41: 616–42. [Google Scholar]
- Swank, Eric, Breanne Fahs, and David M. Frost. 2013. Region, social identities, and disclosure practices as predictors of heterosexist discrimination against sexual minorities in the United States. Sociological Inquiry 2: 238–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Swank, Eric, and Lisa Raiz. 2010. Attitudes toward gays and lesbians among undergraduate social work students. Affilia 25: 19–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taliaferro, Lindsay A., Barbara J. McMorris, G. Nicole Rider, and Marla E. Eisenberg. 2018. Risk and Protective Factors for Self-Harm in a Population-Based Sample of Transgender Youth. Archives of Suicide Research 23: 203–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tankersley, Amelia P., Erika L. Grafsky, Janey Dike, and Russell T. Jones. 2021. Risk and resilience factors for mental health among transgender and gender nonconforming (TGNC) youth: A systematic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 24: 183–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Taylor, Catherine, and Tracey Peter. 2011. “We are not aliens, we’re people, and we have rights.” Canadian human rights discourse and high school climate for LGBTQ students. Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue Canadienne de Sociologie 48: 275–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Toomey, Russell B., Amy K. Syvertsen, and Maura Shramko. 2018. Transgender adolescent suicide behavior. Pediatrics 142: e20174218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Toomey, Russell B., Jenifer K. McGuire, and Stephen T. Russell. 2012. Heteronormativity, school climates, and perceived safety for gender nonconforming peers. Journal of Adolescence 35: 187–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Troshynski, Emily I., and Alexa Bejinariu. 2021. Exploring the rhetoric: How state gender diversity laws address rights for gender-diverse students. Critical Criminology 29: 111–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tyni, Kristiina, Matilda Wurm, Thomas Nordström, and Anna Sofia Bratt. 2023. A systematic review and qualitative research synthesis of the lived experiences and coping of transgender and gender diverse youth 18 years or younger. International Journal of Transgender Health 25: 352–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Valentine, Sarah E., and Jillian C. Shipherd. 2018. A systematic review of social stress and mental health among transgender and gender non-conforming people in the United States. Clinical Psychology Review 66: 24–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Van Hoorn, Jorien, Eric van Dijk, Rosa Meuwese, Carolien Rieffe, and Eveline A. Crone. 2016. Peer influence on prosocial behavior in adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence 26: 90–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vipond, Evan. 2015. Trans rights will not protect us: The limits of equal rights discourse, antidiscrimination laws, and hate crime legislation. The Western Journal of Legal Studies 6: 1. [Google Scholar]
- Wagaman, M. Alex, and Ira Sanchez. 2017. Looking through the magnifying glass: A duoethnographic approach to understanding the value and process of participatory action research with LGBTQ youth. Qualitative Social Work 16: 78–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Warbelow, Sarah, Courtnay Avant, and Colin Kutney. 2019. 2019 State Equality Index. Human Rights Campaign Foundation. Available online: https://hrc-prod-requests.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/HRC-SEI-2019-Report-compressed.cleaned.pdf (accessed on 7 June 2024).
- Weisburd, David. 2003. Ethical practice and evaluation of interventions in crime and justice: The moral imperative for randomized trials. Evaluation Review 27: 336–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Willis, Paul, Michele Raithby, Christine Dobbs, Elizabeth Evans, and Jenny-Anne Bishop. 2021. ‘I’m going to live my life for me’: Trans ageing, care, and older trans and gender non-conforming adults’ expectations of and concerns for later life. Ageing & Society 41: 2792–813. [Google Scholar]
- Wodda, Aimee, and Vanessa R. Panfil. 2014. Don’t talk to me about deception: The necessary erosion of the trans panic defense. Albany Law Review 78: 927. [Google Scholar]
- Woodward, William R. 1982. The” discovery” of social behaviorism and social learning theory, 1870–980. American Psychologist 37: 396. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zeeman, Laetitia, Kay Aranda, Nigel Sherriff, and Chris Cocking. 2017. Promoting resilience and emotional well-being of transgender young people: Research at the intersections of gender and sexuality. Journal of Youth Studies 20: 382–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Shank, A.; Troshynski, E. Can the Cultural Transmission of Trans-Affirming Values Serve as a Protective Factor for Transgender/Gender-Nonconforming Youth? Soc. Sci. 2024, 13, 453. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13090453
Shank A, Troshynski E. Can the Cultural Transmission of Trans-Affirming Values Serve as a Protective Factor for Transgender/Gender-Nonconforming Youth? Social Sciences. 2024; 13(9):453. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13090453
Chicago/Turabian StyleShank, Ashley, and Emily Troshynski. 2024. "Can the Cultural Transmission of Trans-Affirming Values Serve as a Protective Factor for Transgender/Gender-Nonconforming Youth?" Social Sciences 13, no. 9: 453. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13090453