Intersectionality Under Debate in a Globalized World: A Critical Review of the Construction of Democratic Societies Through the Interrelation of Gender, Race, and Cultural Diversities

Abstract

Teacher education is paramount for nurturing democratic, critical, and participative citizenship. Educators should approach identity formation from an intersectional perspective, encompassing sex–gender, racial, and cultural diversities. This perspective highlights social inequalities and challenges the power structures that sustain them. Teachers play a crucial role in shaping and reflecting on these identities since their responsibilities extend beyond knowledge transmission. Their ability to incorporate intersectional perspectives into teaching influences students’ understanding of intersectionality, thereby supporting the development of inclusive identities and promoting democratic citizenship. This article opens with the results of research on how trainee teachers acquire competencies in feminist critical visual literacy. Following this review, we analyzed educational materials to examine stereotypes, racism, and the invisibility of racialized and cultural minority communities. We also addressed the identification and counteraction of hate speech targeting the LGTBIQ+ community as well as different gender-based violence. Comparative data from participating universities provide insights into the critical skills of pre-service teachers across international contexts. This study highlights an urgent need for further research into integrating intersectionality in teacher training, supported by educational policies that strengthen critical competencies through a holistic, gender- and race-sensitive approach aimed at social justice. These initiatives would promote an education system responsive to multifaceted diversities.

1. Introduction: The Social Construction of Identities in Education

Santisteban et al. (2022) pointed out that “the future is the only temporal category in which we can intervene”. Educational systems grounded in socio-critical theory aim to form citizens capable of transforming society through self-criticism. These systems should support a democratic future where controversies between past hegemonies, present consequences, and advances in justice and sustainability are intertwined. In this sense, initial teacher training in a globalized and interconnected world requires education in social sciences and the development of critical thinking. This training should equip teachers to challenge and deconstruct hegemonic narratives inherited from the 19th century, making decisions for the changing realities and development of democratic citizenship that we aspire to create in a globalized world.

Thus, for such a purpose it is essential to address controversies in the classroom based on socially relevant problems (Santisteban 2019), which requires initial teacher training that fosters the development of dialogic thinking (Ross and Gautreaux 2018) where debate, critically contrasting diverse opinions, argumentation, and active participation (both individual and collective) promote consensus-building and thoughtful conclusions as required by training in citizenship with a democratic culture. This approach implies recognizing the “matrix of domination” (Collins 2019) that has organized and hierarchized our vision of the world and understanding our interpretive biases (Giddens 2000) specific to the space and time in which hegemonic meanings were established.

The theory of intersectionality (Crenshaw 1989; Hancock 2007; Collins 2019) helped us consider how the hegemonic narrative has also created biased and racialized concepts and mental constructs of identity. Linked to the postmodern approach to the conceptualization of multiple and fluid identities (Davis 2008), it emphasizes dynamic processes and the deconstruction of normalizing and homogenizing categories, questioning the politics of belonging and the socially imposed heterodesignation (Young 1990). The identities we subscribe to—or are assigned—are contextualized within social conceptions related to gender, class, race, sexual orientation, disability, etc., which also require a decolonial perspective (Vivero 2023).

In our research, focused on the construction of democratic societies through the interrelation of gender, racial, and cultural diversities, we cannot overlook the existence of structural intersectionality (bias related to the subject’s social status), political intersectionality (bias related to the subject’s race–ethnicity), and representational intersectionality (bias related to the preconceived image or stereotype we have of the subject). This perspective helps us understand, for example, Christensen’s (1997) reflection on racism. All this requires the development of historical thinking (Seixas and Morton 2013), which fosters awareness and accountability in our teaching practices and how we encourage students to reflect and self-evaluate (Díez-Bedmar 2019, 2022a, 2022b). Moreover, it demands the cultivation of future-oriented historical awareness (Rüsen 2007) rather than merely learning the historical memory of each country or place (Carretero 2021).

Historical awareness not only vindicates hidden narratives but also makes us aware of how systems of organization and social hierarchies are constructed through concepts like gender, race, culture, and diversity, categories that help us to situate ourselves in the world. The construction of our identity is shaped by socializing agents, such as schools or social media, as we interact with and confront other identities. This process often involves stereotyping and perpetuating prejudices that, according to the dominant historical narrative, have favored men over women as historical subjects. Additionally, this narrative has also prioritized masculine roles and expressions over feminine ones, while also rendering invisible important categories such as age, social class, race, ethnicity, functional diversities, and various diverse sexual orientations (Díez-Bedmar and Cantero-Castelló 2023).

Educational systems have transmitted hegemonic meanings within their contexts, shaping and legitimizing present understandings. These processes give rise to what Gee (1999) termed “discourses”, integrated practices encompassing speech, action, interaction, values, beliefs, and symbols. These elements are socially recognized as part of the identity and activity of a person or a group and allow us to recognize and be recognized as members of a community or social group. Rasskin-Gutman and Brescó de Luna (2019) analyzed that these constructions and narratives about “the others” sometimes persist in current textbooks and, more importantly, in collective memory. Hence, it is necessary to understand current social phenomena linked to identities and analyze these processes in light of “their historicity and evolution” (Santiestban and Castellví Mata 2021, p. 49). For example, identifying the ethnic group to which one belongs and categorizing others according to their physical characteristics is referred to as “racial consciousness” (Clark and Clark 1947). Like other identity consciousnesses, it is inherently contradictory, “deeply conscious of dominant—and often traditional—stereotypes; […] share, on the one hand, a widely and unreservedly accepted consciousness inherited from the past […], and on the other, an implicit consciousness that links some individuals to others in the practical transformation of the world” (Gutmann 2000, p. 38). Gender awareness is already present by at least the age of five (Druto 2001) and is constructed in a dichotomous and binary way, following heteronormative patterns (De la Cruz et al. 2019). Cultural awareness and its development linked to both a social context (and to the descriptive image—in the sense pointed out by Juárez Ruiz and Díez-Bedmar (2015)—of its people) and a spatial–environmental context is today one of the competencies of the educational curriculum throughout Europe (Comisión Europea 2016), where despite acknowledging the existence of diverse cultures, the focus remains on one’s own, ultimately tied to constructing European identity. However, as Burke (2004) warned, how we are defined leads us to assume roles and stereotypes in each cultural context that we internalize as accurate and unique. This creates a powerful differentiating factor compared to others, as the descriptive stereotype determines the prejudice held about a person or group and even naturalizes and justifies them.

Hence, our research seeks to analyze not only whether students in initial teacher training possess or develop understanding and critical awareness of past and present societies, to be able to establish the causalities, but also the causes–effects, of historical processes, but also if they will be able to work with their future students in social sciences that attend to the categories of gender and intersectionality to understand how crossed power relations have fostered discriminations, inequalities, and violence (Sang 2016), which is necessary to understand the origin, the whys and wherefores, and the consequences of not only realities that are close spatially, but all those that we share, build, and visualize through social networks.

Given the persistence of said stereotypes and the influence of dominant narratives on identity, equipping individuals with critical visual literacy (CVL) is essential. CVL, rooted in critical literacy (New London Group 1996), involves not just interpreting images but “reading against images” (Newfield 2011; Chung 2013). This approach helps identify and challenge dominant narratives while examining the cultural significance and power dynamics in visual texts (Rose 2001). Moreover, in the context of the digital era, digital critical literacy (Castellví et al. 2020) necessitates, in terms of analytical criteria, a gender perspective (Lazar 2007; Triviño 2021) that facilitates deeper reflection, interpretation, and analytical strategies concerning these sociocultural and intersectional identities present in digital narratives, namely a feminist critical digital literacy (FCDL) (Díez-Bedmar and Cantero-Castelló 2023).

As Díez-Bedmar (2016, p. 320) points out, “a truly democratic society demands the social construction of a cultural and citizen identity that respects the plurality of individual options, without sexist or cultural stereotypes”. This is necessary not only for a globalized world and the development of a democratic, ethical, and inclusive citizenship, one that is co-responsible in decision-making and seeks equal opportunities for all, but also for the challenges future teachers face, as it is one of their most important responsibilities.

2. Materials and Methods

In an era where digital and visual media shape societal perceptions, equipping future teachers with the ability to critically analyze these representations is more crucial than ever. This section outlines the research process undertaken to explore how students in teacher training programs engage with gender and intersectionality through digital critical literacy, detailing the phases carried out throughout this study.

2.1. Aims and Phases of This Study

The following research questions guide this study, aiming to explore how future educators develop critical digital and visual literacy skills, with a particular focus on gender, race, and social justice.

• How do teachers in training in primary and secondary education engage with FDCL and CVL?
• To what extent are teacher trainees able to critically assess gendered and racialized representations in digital media?
• How effectively do future teachers deconstruct biases and create counter-narratives in social media content?
• How do current teacher training programs foster critical engagement with gender, race, and social justice issues in digital and visual literacy?

2.2. Literature Review

A comprehensive bibliographic review was conducted to examine existing research on intersectionality, critical visual literacy, critical digital literacy, and gender perspectives, with a particular focus on their application in initial teacher training programs. The review explored a diverse range of studies that address the integration of these critical frameworks, emphasizing their role in shaping feminist and intersectional approaches within digital and visual literacy. Additionally, the review considered research that investigates the implementation of these themes in the context of Spanish universities, aiming to provide a deeper understanding of how these perspectives are being incorporated into teacher education and the broader field of social sciences.

2.3. Integrating a Gender Perspective in Intersectional Digital Critical Literacy

This section addresses the research question regarding how teachers in training in primary and secondary education perform critical digital analysis, particularly concerning resources from social networks. It examines the professional arguments they develop based on their academic training, which includes competence in gender issues. This analysis aims to determine whether their critical digital training is adequate and effective, especially considering the expectations outlined in Real Decreto 217/2022 (España 2022a) and Real Decreto 157/2022 (España 2022b) regarding the instruction they must provide to their future students. A validated questionnaire—created with input from five experts—was used to gather data (see Supplementary Materials). It was composed of 8 resources from social media. The participants were asked how they identified sex–gender identities and related intersectional variables and whether they would use these resources to explain these identities in primary and/or secondary education, justifying their choices. For this study, we specifically analyzed the responses obtained from resources 1 and 6 (Figure 1 and Figure 2).

The sample focused on 220 students (125 women, 92 men, 3 non-binary gender) enrolled in initial teacher training for both the Bachelor’s Degree in Primary Education (157) and the Master’s Degree in Secondary Education with a specialization in social sciences (63). The data collection took place throughout the 2022/2023 academic year across six Spanish universities thanks to the development of the online questionnaire.

The analysis of the results was carried out both quantitatively and qualitatively. Quantitatively, we used Cronbach’s Alpha with SPSS 2, and qualitatively, we used Atlas.ti (v.24).

2.4. Feminist Action Research: Visual Critical Analysis in the Classroom

This section addresses research questions two to four using Education Action Research (ECR) (Ahedo Gurrutxaga et al. 2022) conducted from a feminist perspective, focused on feminist visual critical analysis, in a classroom context.

We analyzed the responses from 46 students (29 women and 17 men) enrolled in a Primary Education Degree at the University of Jaén, based on a worksheet, Figure 3 (“Mirar y no solo ver lo que llega al móvil: destapar violencias de género y construir contra-relatos”), carried out in the 2023/2024 academic year. It was conducted to explore whether future teachers are capable of questioning their gender stereotypes and prejudices; detecting and analyzing them in the social media they use; interpreting them using critical feminist digital literacy; and acting by critically and historically deconstructing roles and stereotypes and constructing counter-narratives.

These counter-narratives were requested in memes, which could assist both teachers and students in clarifying, summarizing, and communicating the outcomes of these more complex learning processes (Suárez-Guerrero et al. 2022). These processes involved reasoning, analysis, interpretation, synthesis of information, research skills and practices, and questioning, as well as fostering creativity and innovation and promoting civic, ethical, and social justice literacy concerning socially relevant issues.

For this task, students had to describe the resource they selected, analyze the results, identify the historical casualties of the violence detected (what, why, how), and outline their counter-narrative. The sources of the resources (such as images and links) should be placed under the title “Si solo ves” (If you just see) and referenced correctly, and the counter-narrative created (image, text, reel, video, TikTok, etc.) should be placed under the title “Si además miras” (If you also look).

Both the students’ texts and the counter-narratives, represented as memes, were analyzed based on the results obtained.

3. Results

3.1. Literature Review Results

As Freire and Macedo (2005, p. 35) stated, “reading the world always precedes reading the word and reading the word implies continually reading the world”; images possess their semiotics and are carriers and transmitters of ideologies, values, beliefs, and ideas that form and shape the vision and manifestation of reality (Duncum 2010). Thus, in the Western iconosphere most images are presented as a representation of the hegemonic discourse that helps to normalize identity and ethnocultural hierarchies; as Ghorashi (2018, p. 185) states, “power is not only visible through the positions of power, but it is increasingly present in shaping our actions through discourses and invisible processes that become routine in everyday practices”. This visual discourse (Fairclough 2002) has been realized through simplified representations of minorities and groups marginalized by a patriarchal society, generating and maintaining stereotypes (Taylor-Mendes 2009) and emphasizing the idea of otherness, highlighting differences and reducing identity to a series of false predefined characteristics (Holliday 2011).

The absence of questioning this discourse instills in students at all levels the idea that identity hierarchies are not negotiable (Kraehe and Acuff 2021). Despite this, as Miller and Hunt (2022, p. 675) claim, critical thinking linked to visual content is rarely studied in higher education, which is paradoxical considering that we live in a society dominated by social networks and audiovisual content.

After conducting the literature review, it is evident that there is a strikingly low amount of research on CVL and teachers in training, particularly within the social sciences, and its connection to intersectional categories, such as gender identities, social class, race, or ethnic–cultural identities.

The results of several studies show that a majority of students with education degrees have obvious difficulties (Santisteban et al. 2020; García-Ruiz and González-Milea 2022) in mastering CVL, most of them being at a superficial skill level. As García-Ruiz and González-Milea (2022, p. 61) point out, when reading an image, early childhood education teachers in training seek to decode the message without considering that the image analyzed is the product of social construction and continuing with the standardized discourse, the result of their training, where the image is still associated with creativity in the students as opposed to the empowerment of critical awareness. In this sense, the results obtained by Santisteban et al. (2020, pp. 190–93) show how students in primary education lack critical skills when analyzing controversial visual discourses linked to gender violence and homophobia, and if they had acquired this ability, they do not seem to be able to put it into practice (ibid., p. 196). These results coincide with those obtained in similar studies at international level (Buitrago et al. 2015; Wineburgh et al. 2016 cited in Santisteban et al. 2020, p. 188).

Thus, teachers in training often perpetuate a form of social blindness (Carreira 2018, p. 133) that leads them to consider their perspectives as the only source of interpretation, neglecting the context in which the analyzed images were created. Following Mitchell (2002, p. 166), it is necessary that students learn to analyze the content of images critically, “overcoming the veil of familiarity and self-evidence that surrounds the experience of seeing, and turning it into a problem for analysis […]”.

In cases where education students are able to identify the intentionality of a message and generate critical responses (García-Ruiz and González-Milea 2022, pp. 60–63), there is still inconsistency in their abilities. Similar results in other studies indicate that students often show variable performance (Miller and Hunt 2022, p. 693) or, despite showing signs of possessing average levels of CVL, they are not able to put it into practice (Santisteban et al. 2020, p. 196).

3.2. Results on Integrating a Gender Perspective in Intersectional Digital Critical Literacy

Following the resources outlined in Section 2.3, we first examine what acceptance from a gender perspective means, how the sample identifies sex–gender identities, and the kinds of narratives they use to construct their responses.

Using Cronbach’s Alpha analysis with SPSS 2, the data yielded a coefficient of 0.83, indicating a 95% confidence level that Cronbach’s Alpha in this study is statistically significant. The hypothesis was formulated as follows: hypothesis 0 (H0: alpha = 0) and hypothesis 1 (H1: alpha other than 0), whose function was F = (1 − lpha)/(1 − estimator unbiased alpha), which results in 5.937547452. Following this, if F was distributed over N−1 and (N − a) (n − 1) numerator and denominator degrees of freedom, a significance level of 5% was established. Then, if F_219.219*19 = F_219.4161 was approximately 1.19, the conclusion drawn was that 5.93 > 1.19.

Similarly, from the 20 quantitative items (Figure 4), items 3 and 4 were linked to resource 1, and items 15 and 16 to resource 6. The acceptance of the previously established resources from a quantitative perspective yielded the following results.

From an overall acceptance point of view, the most accepted resource was resource 6 as opposed to resource 1.

In terms of sex–gender identity within the sample, men are generally more reluctant to use the methods compared to women, while non-binary individuals are more actively included in the classroom. Likewise, as evidenced by the results, the discourse related to sex–gender identities (and all that accompanies them) associated with new masculinities (resource 1, items 3 and 4) generates more controversy compared to when racial issues (resource 6, items 15 and 16) are addressed.

Additionally, regarding the second research question, the results indicated by the codes align with the concurrence index (the linking among codes) from Atlas.ti (v.24), as shown in

Table 1. Resource 1 (X post). Concurrence among ML when linked to CAMB. Source: The authors.

Code/Concurrence (ML)	EMO	ML	IH
CAMB	0.67	0.25	0.28

and

Table 2. Resource 1 (X post). Concurrence among ML when linked to EVO. Source: The authors.

Code/Concurrence (ML)	EMO	OSEX	IH
EVO	0.72	0.78	0.73

.

Regarding the concurrence index of the X post, it can be observed that the sample reveals a mere change (CAMB) in masculinity (ML) and male identity (IH). However, when an evolution (EVO) is detected, it is strongly connected to sexual orientation (OSEX) and male identity (IH).

The connections that exist between the codes defining these new masculinities are as follows (Figure 5):

Two approaches to networking concepts of masculinities are identified. The first, related to a change (CAMB) in resources, associates this change with emotions (EMO), which shape a concept of masculinity (ML) that breaks with the traditional patriarchal and violent model, and is considered less prevalent. The second approach refers to an evolution (EVO) of masculine identity (IH), also detached from the traditional concept. Both perspectives are connected to emotionality, which is expressed in a new, more sentimental form of gender, linked to sexual orientation (OSEX), specifically homosexuality. This connection between emotions and femininity (FM) leads to the view that new masculinities, characterized by sensitivity and emotionality, are seen as feminine and therefore associated with LGTBIQ+ identities, like homosexuality (Figure 6).

Regarding the concurrence index of the X thread (

Table 3. Concurrence among R and codes. Source: The authors.

Code/Concurrence	EMO	EG	RG	T
R	0.64	0.14	0.06	0.34
RAC	0.25	0.76	0.78	0.87

), when the sample detects the presence of racism (R) in the post, it is more closely linked to narratives with a strong emotional component (EMO) and a tendency to focus on the tasks they perform (T), distancing themselves from the question posed. However, when the sample detects racial identity, there is a connection between gender roles (GR), gender stereotypes (GS), and, consequently, the tasks (T), with gender being incorporated into their narratives.

Likewise, the sample detected a higher level of elements linked to racism than to raciality, whose concurrence is >0.1 (

Table 4. Detection of elements linked to racism and raciality. Source: The authors.

Racism	Raciality	Concurrence
0.78	0.22	0.08

).

Regarding the concurrence index of the X thread (Table 3), when the sample detects the presence of racism (R) in the post, it is more closely linked to narratives with a strong emotional component (EMO) and a tendency to focus on the tasks they perform (T), distancing themselves from the question posed. However, when the sample detects racial identity, there is a connection between gender roles (RG), gender stereotypes (EG), and, consequently, the tasks (T), with gender being incorporated into their narratives.

Thus, the sample detected a higher level of elements linked to racism than to raciality, whose concurrence is >0.1 (Table 4).

Likewise, the following linkages among the codes can be observed (Figure 7):

The sample presents two distinct analytical approaches. The first is centered on racism (R), which refers to racial discrimination that impacts an individual, accompanied by a pronounced emotional component (NEM), without further exploration of other factors such as visual symbolism, gender, or the roles depicted within the resource. The second, less prevalent, approach focuses on the variables associated with raciality (RAC) in black individuals, examining aspects such as tasks (T), roles (RG), and gender stereotypes (EG) attributed to them, viewing these characteristics as feminine (FEM) and inherently linked to women. Although the sample recognizes the concept of raciality, it sometimes conflates it with racism, directing its analysis more toward racial prejudice than addressing gender concerns.

Furthermore, when the sample encounters instances of racism or raciality, they are presented as follows (Figure 8):

The term “racism” is understood as relating to the identification of cultural elements associated with discrimination based on race or skin color, as well as stereotypes or roles such as slavery; in this context, the gender factor is quite absent.

The term “raciality” is conceived as a more interconnected and profound analysis, where the gender factor is considered, particularly concerning gender roles and stereotypes, sexism, women’s labor (servitude), and the power dynamics of race—namely, white supremacy and black inferiority. Raciality tends to emphasize inclusivity and diversity.

Regarding the kinds of narratives used to construct their responses, the combined analytical categories, divided into the sex–gender identities of the sample, the type of argumentation (APRO—professional argumentation—and APER—personal argumentation), and the type of narrative (NED—educational narrative—and NEM—emotional narrative), provide the following results (

Table 5. Type of argumentation and narrative based on the sex–gender identities of the sample. Source: The authors.

Type of Argumentation and Narrative	Women	Men	Non-Binary Gender
APER	0.17	0.19	0.23
APRO	0.24	0.17	0.85
NED	0.23	0.18	0.75
NEM	0.15	0.15	0.21

).

It is crucial to note that the index of concurrence between APER and NEM is 0.67, and that between APRO and NED is 0.81, as derived from the Atlas.ti (v.24) analysis.

From a more thorough perspective, in resource 1, the sample predominantly exhibits a more personal (APER) than professional (APRO) response, and a more emotional (NEM) than educational (NED) response. However, women and non-binary individuals in the sample tend to show slight differences from men (Figure 9), suggesting that women and people with non-binary genders are somewhat more inclined to adopt an educational and professional narrative concerning this type of resource.

In resource 2, there is a direct correlation (Figure 10) between professional arguments (APRO) and educational narratives (NED), as well as an almost direct correlation between personal arguments (APER) and emotional narratives (NEM). This indicates that when the sample is presented with resources that feature these types of narratives, they draw inferences with a distinct educational and professional orientation, which results from their acceptance of the resource. Thus, the resource follows a trajectory aimed at professionalism and educational engagement, a path that is represented with minimal variation (>0.07 according to Atlas.ti v.24) across the sample, irrespective of their sex–gender identities.

In this regard, when the sample detects racism, their argumentations, although educational and professional in some cases, distance them from a gender perspective due to the personal emotional factor. This contrasts with the portion of the sample that detects raciality, as they tend to engage with an intersectional and gender perspective despite being in the minority.

3.3. Feminist Action Research: Visual Critical Analysis in the Classroom

The majority of students tend to reproduce the content found on social media or reuse examples they consider validated. There are also notable gender biases in the selection of resources. For instance, while men chose resources related to video games, women predominantly selected cultural products traditionally associated with female audiences (such as the show “The Bridgertons”).

Most of the violence detected and the counter-narratives created have been influenced by the visual image construction itself (descriptive and external characteristics), with few examples of violence linked to emotions and the internalization of stereotypes related to behavior and actions shaped by dichotomous and heteronormative gender roles (Díez-Bedmar and Montejo-Palacios 2025). This also occurs when applying an intersectional category (age, race, diverse identities, inter alia), and it has allowed us to observe how the identification of prejudices and stereotypes is sometimes linked to obvious conceptual gaps.

Notably, we found a significant lack of intersectionality (Figure 11) in the themes presented by the participants. Specifically, 80% of the themes were non-intersectional, compared to only 8% of concepts that included representations of racial, gender, or cultural identity diversity. Among the latter, female participants were more likely to incorporate intersectional elements in their analyses of meme construction, with 20.8% of their responses reflecting this, compared to only 6.4% of male participants.

According to teaching competency, it is observed that only 18% of participants express this competence through their analysis and critical reflection in contrast to the great majority of 74% who have not acquired professional competency in visual violence analysis in digital environments.

Analyzing these results by gender (Figure 12), it can be observed that, in the case of male participants, 30.4% do not express this competency, compared to 6.5% of participants who do. On the other hand, female participants express this teaching competency in 13% of cases, while 50% of cases show an inability to express the teaching competency in their responses.

4. Discussion

Addressing intersectionality requires historical, social, and cultural analysis to examine the issue of what we might refer to as an exclusionary “social ontology”, shaped by existing systems of domination (Yuval-Davis 2006, 2010). Yuval-Davis identifies three levels at which identity is socially constructed. The first level focuses on structures of oppression by highlighting social locations that correspond with networks of power relations. These intersections are crucial for discussing the “politics of belonging” and “identity politics”. The second level acknowledges that, even though individuals may choose to identify with one or two categories, the intersectional framework of social locations—connected to systems of domination—still operates and produces effects. Finally, the third level concerns the ethical and political values to which we reflexively relate. All these levels emerge in our analysis and are vital for reevaluating the meaning of belonging within the context of global citizenship.

With regard to the first level, we observe that teachers perceive images in training benignly, making uncritical and unreflective choices, prioritizing aesthetics or ease of access (Miller and Hunt 2022, p. 694) rather than questioning the underlying message. As Matusiak et al. (2019 cited in Miller and Hunt 2022, p. 694) point out, university students who are frequently exposed to visual content may develop a certain desensitization to the role of images as carriers of information, as they perceive images as modes of entertainment rather than as means of communicating discourse. Therefore, it is necessary to include CVL competence in higher education, particularly in education degrees; as Santisteban, Díez-Bedmar, and Castellví point out in their study (2020, p. 196), the practice of CVL enables students to explore diverse perspectives, recognize ethnocultural hierarchies, and reevaluate hegemonic assumptions of gender identities, critically approaching visual representation.

We must not forget that teachers in training with competencies in CVL linked to identities—among others, racial, ethnocultural, and gender identities—will have a key role as transforming agents in the classrooms of the future, as opposed to teachers who uncritically select images and, therefore, continue to reproduce hegemonic discourses. This transformative process is vital for forming critical, active, and participatory citizenship.

At the second level, we observe the influence of social factors in the individual construction of identities. In our analysis of images and resources selected from social networks, we examined how these images challenge stereotypes, considering which networks were chosen for analysis, and the reasons behind those choices as well as what subjects were selected and analyzed. Additionally, we looked for signs of discourse and investigated how counter-narratives were constructed through memes.

We further categorized both narratives and counter-narratives to identify (if any) the presence of intersectionality. We explored whether participants’ choices were influenced by their beliefs about the types of analyses (and what their beliefs are in this regard) that can be performed with primary school students, as we had requested. We also assessed whether they tended to fully or partially reproduce models and examples provided in the activity description or other courses in their degree program.

At the third level, controversies arise between personal aspects and the professional ethics of future teachers; we analyzed their ability to detect violence in various contexts and whether their responses reflected their development as future teachers, rather than solely personal points of view. In line with the work of García-Luque and De la Cruz Redondo (2022), the controversy surrounding new masculinities stems from the physical differences between men and women that have been validated in our culture as a model of masculinity. This model is based on biological attributes that have been naturalized to justify gender roles and stereotypes. These include strength, bravery, power, domination, the inability to ask for help, aggression, violence, competitiveness, and difficulty in developing emotional intelligence. This has led to the normalization and rejection of the recognition of other forms of masculinity that are currently emerging. Furthermore, the detection of racism, defined as “the beliefs, practices, or structural systems—such as education—that function to oppress racial groups” (Bell 1992; Delgado and Stefancic 2001 cited in Mills and Unsworth 2018, p. 314), is quite different from establishing intersectionality in the analyses, as occurs when racial identity is found. This is because “racialization is not a synonym for racial discrimination or identity” (Chávez-Moreno 2023, p. 304); rather, it is based on the analysis of how “society’s process of creating racialized groups are socially constructed by delineating boundaries and constructing (unstable) categories” (ibid., p. 305).

González-Gavaldón (1999, p. 82) pointed out how the persistence of stereotypes is maintained over time “as long as the stereotyping group does not need to make a change for some adaptive or survival reason”. Similarly, teachers in initial training present a deficit in critical digital literacy that persists over time (Castellví et al. 2020), which is thoroughly explained when annalistic attention is paid to the gender category (feminist critical digital literacy) (Díez-Bedmar and Cantero-Castelló 2023).

5. Conclusions

In this simultaneous diachronic analysis, we have identified deficiencies in the training of students in the Compulsory Education programs for the Degree in Primary Education and the Master’s in Secondary Education in Social Sciences. Specifically, there are gaps related to critical digital competencies. The results obtained in the literature review (A), the critical digital analysis from a gender perspective (B), and the implementation of resources in classrooms (C) confirm these deficits and lack of competencies, highlighting the lack of competencies needed to work with digital narratives in classrooms and their insufficient teaching employed, or not, in schools.

Moreover, the use of subversive humor as a tool seeks to redefine attitudes, roles, and stereotypes associated with gender and confront patriarchy (Case and Lippard 2009). As noted by Gutiérrez-Rubí (2019, p. 83), a meme can transform our perception since it “takes us out of the position of the victim to give voice to individuals and entity to the collective that is generated with laughter or shared smile”. This makes humor a powerful tool that links with the personal experiences of students.

Nevertheless, it is important to consider that digital resources may disappear or become obsolete, as a consequence of this digital society that seeks constant updates and feedback through multiple channels. Thus, this leads to a continuous process of renewal, reformulation of “digital codes,” and the constant updating of elements received through digital media (like social media), especially in addressing both structural and representational intersectionality.

We have detected a lack of studies in CVL related to intersectionality, particularly those referring to sex–gender, racial, ethnocultural, and class identities, and ability–disability and bodily diversities. This is a field of study practically unexplored in all areas, with a notable deficiency in the field of social sciences. Finally, the sex–gender identities of the future teachers analyzed demonstrate that this factor significantly influences the type of teaching response they are likely to provide in the classroom, ultimately affecting the implementation of their educational practices.

Furthermore, among the limitations, it is worth highlighting the need to expand the sample in both number and context, given that some identities are underrepresented in the sample. Due to data protection issues, it is difficult to identify (unless they do so voluntarily) samples that fit the category of sexual orientation, so they would be included in the heterosexual category. Additionally, given the context in which the samples were collected, there is very little presence of diverse ethnicities. Another limitation is the lack of specific literature in the field of initial teacher training with which to compare the results.

Finally, it is recommended that studies that propose the intersectional analysis of democratic societies for a globalized world delve into the practices carried out by teachers of history and social sciences. For this reason, it is important to develop an intersectional, visual, digital, critical, and feminist education in initial teacher training to address the existing deficiencies within current teacher preparation. This would enable the active and participatory construction of a society aligned with democratic values and principles, contributing through educational systems to the construction of complex and dynamic identities rather than hegemonic and static ones.