Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Associated Risk Factors in Pregnant Women in Araçatuba, São Paulo, Brazil: A Multi-Level Analysis
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Ethical Statement
2.2. Study Design and Serum Samples
2.3. Serum Samples
2.4. Questionnaire
2.5. Statistical Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Individual Risk Factors | Proportion (n) | CI95% 1 | Standard Error |
---|---|---|---|
Toxoplasma gondii | 55.14% (236) | 50.38–59.81 | 2.40 |
Age range (Mean: 26.50; CI95%: 25.86–27.13) | |||
15–24 | 38.32% (164) | 33.81–43.02 | 2.41 |
25–35 | 46.03% (197) | 41.34–50.79 | 2.35 |
36–45 | 15.65% (67) | 12.50–19.42 | 1.76 |
Marital status | |||
Single | 20.79% (89) | 17.20–24.91 | 2.34 |
Married | 64.02% (274) | 59.34–68.44 | 1.96 |
Other | 15.19% (65) | 12.08–18.91 | 1.73 |
Pregnancies | |||
1 | 37.85% (162) | 33.36–42.55 | 2.34 |
>1 | 62.15% (266) | 57.44–66.63 | 2.34 |
Level of Education | |||
Complete Elementary | 25.93% (111) | 21.99–30.31 | 2.12 |
Complete Medium | 65.65% (281) | 61.01–70.01 | 2.30 |
Graduated | 8.41% (36) | 6.12–11.45 | 1.34 |
BHU | Individual Risk Factors | IgG (Toxoplama gondii) | Total | p Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Non-Reagent % (n) | Reagent % (n) | ||||
A | Age range (Mean: 27.13; CI95%: 25.37–28.88; N = 72 *) | ||||
15–24 | 47.62% (10) | 52.38% (11) | 28.21% (21) | 1.00 | |
25–35 | 45.24% (19) | 54.76% (23) | 58.97% (42) | ||
36–45 | 44.44% (4) | 55.56% (5) | 12.82% (9) | ||
Marital status | |||||
Single | 47.06% (8) | 52.94% (9) | 23.61% (17) | 0.73 | |
Married | 47.83% (22) | 52.17% (24) | 63.89% (46) | ||
Other | 33.33% (3) | 66.67% (6) | 12.50% (9) | ||
Pregnancies | |||||
1 | 44.44% (8) | 55.56% (10) | 25.00% (18) | 0.89 | |
>1 | 46.30% (25) | 53.70% (29) | 75.00% (54) | ||
B | Age range (Mean: 29.05; CI95%: 27.16–30.95; N = 94 *) | ||||
15–24 | 59.46% (22) | 40.54% (15) | 39.36% (37) | 0.005 | |
25–35 | 33.33% (13) | 66.67% (26) | 41.49% (39) | ||
36–45 | 16.67% (3) | 83.33% (15) | 19.15% (18) | ||
Marital status | |||||
Single | 63.16% (12) | 36.84% (7) | 20.21% (19) | 0.04 | |
Married | 31.75% (20) | 68.25% (43) | 67.02% (63) | ||
Other | 50.00% (6) | 50.00% (6) | 10.71% (12) | ||
Pregnancies | |||||
1 | 61.36% (27) | 38.64% (17) | 46.80% (44) | < 0.001 | |
>1 | 22.00% (11) | 78.00% (39) | 53.19% (50) | ||
C | Age range (Mean: 25.79; CI95%: 24.23–27.36; N = 89 *) | ||||
15–24 | 31.82% (14) | 68.18% (30) | 49.44% (44) | 0.37 | |
25–35 | 18.75% (6) | 81.25% (26) | 35.96% (32) | ||
36–45 | 15.38% (2) | 84.62% (11) | 14.61% (13) | ||
Marital status | |||||
Single | 31.58% (6) | 68.42% (13) | 19.40% (19) | 0.16 | |
Married | 18.18% (10) | 81.82% (45) | 61.80% (55) | ||
Other | 40.00% (6) | 60.00% (9) | 16.85% (15) | ||
Pregnancies | |||||
1 | 22.22% (8) | 77.78% (28) | 40.45% (36) | 0.65 | |
>1 | 26.42% (14) | 73.58% (39) | 59.55% (53) | ||
D | Age range (Mean: 28.41; CI95%: 26.87–29.97; N = 173 *) | ||||
15–24 | 69.35% (43) | 30.65% (19) | 35.84% (62) | 0.02 | |
25–35 | 54.76% (46) | 45.24% (38) | 48.55% (84) | ||
36–45 | 37.04% (10) | 62.96% (17) | 15.61% (27) | ||
Marital status | |||||
Single | 70.59% (24) | 29.41% (10) | 19.65% (34) | 0.21 | |
Married | 54.55% (60) | 45.45% (50) | 63.58% (110) | ||
Other | 51.72% (15) | 48.28% (14) | 16.76% (29) | ||
Pregnancies | |||||
1 | 73.44% (47) | 26.56% (17) | 36.99% (64) | 0.001 | |
>1 | 47.71% (52) | 52.29% (57) | 63.01% (109) |
Risk Factors | Reagent IgG n/% | Total | OR (CI95%) 1 | p 2 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age range | ||||
15–24 | 75 (45.73%) | 164 (38.32%) | 1.93 (1.42 < OR < 2.64) | <0.001 |
25–35 | 113 (57.36%) | 197 (46.03%) | ||
36–45 | 48 (71.64%) | 67 (15.65%) | ||
15–24 | 75 (45.73%) | 164 (38.32%) | 1 | 0.04 |
25–35 | 113 (57.36%) | 197 (46.03%) | 1.60 (1.05 < OR < 2.42) | |
15–24 | 75 (45.73%) | 164 (38.32%) | 1 | 0.0006 |
36–45 | 48 (71.64%) | 67 (15.65%) | 3.00 (1.62 < OR < 5.54) | |
25–35 | 113 (57.36%) | 197 (46.03%) | 1 | 0.05 |
36–45 | 48 (71.64%) | 67 (15.65%) | 1.88 (1.03 < OR < 3.43) | |
Marital status | ||||
Single | 39 (43.82%) | 89 (20.79%) | 1.54 (1.11 < OR < 2.13) | 0.0089 |
Married | 162 (59.12%) | 274 (64.02%) | ||
Other | 35 (53.85%) | 65 (15.19%) | ||
Single | 39 (43.82%) | 89 (20.79%) | 1 | 0.01 |
Married | 162 (59.12%) | 274 (64.02%) | 1.85 (1.14 < OR < 3.01) | |
Single | 39 (43.82%) | 89 (20.79%) | 1 | 0.25 |
Other | 35 (53.85%) | 65 (15.19%) | 1.50 (0.79 < OR < 2.85) | |
Married | 162 (59.12%) | 274 (64.02%) | 1.24 (0.72 < OR < 2.14) | 0.53 |
Other | 35 (53.85%) | 65 (15.19%) | 1 | |
Pregnancies | ||||
1 | 72 (44.44%) | 162 (37.85%) | 1 | 0.001 |
>1 | 164 (61.65%) | 266 (62.15%) | 2.01 (1.35 < OR < 2.99) | |
Undercooked meat | ||||
Yes | 69 (56.10%) | 123 (28.74%) | 1.06 (0.69 < OR < 1.61) | 0.88 |
No | 167 (54.75%) | 305 (71.26%) | 1 | |
Manipulate soil or sand | ||||
Yes | 36 (58.06%) | 62 (14.49%) | 1.15 (0.67 < OR < 1.98) | 0.72 |
No | 200 (54.64%) | 366 (85.51%) | 1 | |
Eat raw vegetables and greens | ||||
No | 78 (55.32%) | 141 (32.94%) | 1.01 (0.67 < OR < 1.52) | 0.96 |
Yes | 158 (55.05%) | 287 (67.06%) | 1 | |
Presence of a vegetable garden at home | ||||
Yes | 17 (62.96%) | 27 (6.31%) | 1.41 (0.63 < OR < 3.16) | 0.52 |
No | 219 (54.61%) | 401 (93.69%) | 1 | |
Owning a pet cat | ||||
Yes | 47 (61.04%) | 77 (17.99%) | 1.34 (0.81 < OR < 2.22) | 0.31 |
No | 189 (53.85%) | 351 (82.01%) | 1 | |
Ingestion of unpasteurized cow’s or goat’s milk | ||||
Yes | 41 (66.13%) | 62 (14.49%) | 1.71 (0.97 < OR < 3.01) | 0.21 |
No | 195 (53.28%) | 366 (85.51%) | 1 | |
Level of education | ||||
Complete Elementary | 66 (59.46%) | 111 (25.93%) | 1.47 (1.04 < OR < 2.08) | 0.029 |
Complete Medium | 158 (56.23%) | 281 (65.65%) | ||
Graduated | 12 (33.33%) | 36 (8.41%) | ||
Complete Elementary | 66 (59.46%) | 111 (25.93%) | 1.14 (0.73 < OR < 1.78) | 0.64 |
Complete Medium | 158 (56.23%) | 281 (65.65%) | 1 | |
Complete Elementary | 66 (59.46%) | 111 (25.93%) | 2.93 (1.33 < OR < 6.46) | 0.01 |
Graduated | 12 (33.33%) | 36 (8.41%) | 1 | |
Complete Medium | 158 (56.23%) | 281 (65.65%) | 2.57 (1.23 < OR < 5.34) | 0.02 |
Graduated | 12 (33.33%) | 36 (8.41%) | 1 | |
Minimum wage | ||||
≤1 | 24 (64.86%) | 37 (8.64%) | 1.62 (1.00 < OR < 2.63) | 0.049 |
1 > 2 | 198 (55.46%) | 357 (83.41%) | ||
>3 | 14 (41.18%) | 34 (7.94%) | ||
≤1 | 24 (64.86%) | 37 (8.64%) | 1 | 0.01 |
1 > 2 | 198 (55.46%) | 357 (83.41%) | 1.85 (1.14 < OR < 3.01) | |
≤1 | 24 (64.86%) | 37 (8.64%) | 1 | 0.25 |
>3 | 14 (41.18%) | 34 (7.94%) | 1.50 (0.79 < OR < 2.85) | |
1 > 2 | 198 (55.46%) | 357 (83.41%) | 1.24 (0.72 < OR < 2.14) | 0.53 |
>3 | 14 (41.18%) | 34 (7.94%) | 1 |
Variables | Adjusted OR 1 | CI95% | SE 2 | p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age range (36–45) | 2.82 | 1.38 < OR < 5.78 | 1.03 | 0.005 |
Age range (25–35) | 1.60 | 0.97 < OR < 2.64 | 0.41 | 0.063 |
Marital status (Married) | 1.13 | 0.69 < OR < 2.03 | 0.34 | 0.693 |
Marital status (Single) | 0.71 | 0.35 < OR < 1.42 | 0.25 | 0.326 |
Pregnant | 1.48 | 0.91 < OR < 2.39 | 0.36 | 0.112 |
Level of education (Complete Elementary) | 2.58 | 1.07 < OR < 6.19 | 1.15 | 0.034 |
Level of education (Complete Medium) | 2.59 | 1.17 < OR < 5.74 | 1.05 | 0.019 |
Minimum wage (≤1) | 2.10 | 0.73 < OR < 6.05 | 1.13 | 0.171 |
Minimum wage (1 > 2) | 1.37 | 0.63 < OR < 2.98 | 0.54 | 0.427 |
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© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Lozano, T.d.S.P.; Benitez, A.; Santos, J.C.d.; Navarro, I.T.; Nagata, W.B.; Pinto, M.d.S.; Gomes, J.F.; Debortoli, G.Z.T.; Santos-Doni, T.R.; Bresciani, K.D.S. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Associated Risk Factors in Pregnant Women in Araçatuba, São Paulo, Brazil: A Multi-Level Analysis. Microorganisms 2024, 12, 2183. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12112183
Lozano TdSP, Benitez A, Santos JCd, Navarro IT, Nagata WB, Pinto MdS, Gomes JF, Debortoli GZT, Santos-Doni TR, Bresciani KDS. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Associated Risk Factors in Pregnant Women in Araçatuba, São Paulo, Brazil: A Multi-Level Analysis. Microorganisms. 2024; 12(11):2183. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12112183
Chicago/Turabian StyleLozano, Tatiani da Silva Palhota, Aline Benitez, Joice Cristina dos Santos, Italmar Teodorico Navarro, Walter Bertequini Nagata, Michel dos Santos Pinto, Jancarlo Ferreira Gomes, Gabriele Zaine Teixeira Debortoli, Thaís Rabelo Santos-Doni, and Katia Denise Saraiva Bresciani. 2024. "Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Associated Risk Factors in Pregnant Women in Araçatuba, São Paulo, Brazil: A Multi-Level Analysis" Microorganisms 12, no. 11: 2183. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12112183