Development of a Method for the Fast Detection of Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase- and Plasmid-Mediated AmpC β-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae from Dogs and Cats in the USA
College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Republic of Korea
Animals 2023, 13(4), 649; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13040649
Submission received: 25 January 2023
/
Revised: 9 February 2023
/
Accepted: 11 February 2023
/
Published: 13 February 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Animals as Reservoir of Antimicrobial Resistance)
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) and plasmid-mediated AmpC (pAmpC) β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae cause treatment failures in veterinary medicine. Many methods have been recommended for the detection of ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase production but they are very subjective and the appropriate facilities are not available in most laboratories, especially not in clinics. We report the development of a method that can detect ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing bacteria and this method is a fast, and low-cost tool for the screening of frequently encountered ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing bacteria and would assist in diagnosis and improve therapeutic treatment in animal hospitals.
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance, such as resistance to beta-lactams and the development of resistance mechanisms, is associated with multifactorial phenomena and not only with the use of third-generation cephalosporins. Many methods have been recommended for the detection of ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase production but they are very subjective and the appropriate facilities are not available in most laboratories, especially not in clinics. Therefore, for fast clinical antimicrobial selection, we need to rapidly detect ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing bacteria using a simple method with samples containing large amounts of bacteria. For the detection of ESBL- and pAmpC phenotypes and genes, the disk diffusion test, DDST and multiplex PCR were conducted. Of the 109 samples, 99 (90.8%) samples were grown in MacConkey broth containing cephalothin, and 71 samples were grown on MacConkey agar containing ceftiofur. Of the 71 samples grown on MacConkey agar containing ceftiofur, 58 Escherichia coli and 19 Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates, in particular, harbored β-lactamase genes. Of the 38 samples that did not grow in MacConkey broth containing cephalothin or on MacConkey agar containing ceftiofur, 32 isolates were identified as E. coli, and 10 isolates were identified as K. pneumoniae; β-lactamase genes were not detected in these E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolates. Of the 78 ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae, 55 (70.5%) isolates carried one or more ESBL genes and 56 (71.8%) isolates carried one or more pAmpC β-lactamase genes. Our method is a fast, and low-cost tool for the screening of frequently encountered ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing bacteria and it would assist in diagnosis and improve therapeutic treatment in animal hospitals.
1. Introduction
Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae are members of the Enterobacteriaceae family, which mostly act as commensals in the intestinal tract of animals and humans. In particular, these bacteria can cause community-onset infections in animals and humans and are the common bacteria associated with urinary tract infections [1,2,3,4,5,6]. β-lactams are preferred for treating these infections in humans and veterinary medicine [7,8].
Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) and plasmid-mediated AmpC (pAmpC) β-lactamases are plasmid-encoded enzymes which are capable of inactivating a large number of β-lactam antibiotics, including extended-spectrum and very-broad-spectrum cephalosporins [9]. The most common bacteria that carry ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase genes include E. coli and K. pneumoniae [10]. The emergence of ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae in healthy and diseased animals constitutes an increasing challenge to infection management in veterinary therapy [11]. Moreover, the resistance caused by ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamases is usually multidrug resistance, which leads to critical therapeutic limitations [12,13].
Many tests have been recommended for the detection of ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase production according to phenotype [14,15,16]. The most commonly used methods include the double disc synergy test (DDST) and Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) confirmatory test. However, these methods are very subjective and can only be used for a single colony isolated from a sample. In addition, molecular methods are key tools in detection; however, the appropriate facilities are not available in most laboratories, especially not in clinics, and they are used for a single colony. Therefore, for fast clinical antimicrobial selection, we need to rapidly detect ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing bacteria using a simple method with samples containing large amounts of bacteria. The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate a new detection method for ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing bacteria and to evaluate the isolation and characterization of ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae from shelter dogs and cats using this method.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
For the development of an isolation method for ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae, we used a sample, isolated in 2014, from an animal hospital in Mississippi State University. For the detection of ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing bacteria by phenotype, ESBL production was confirmed using the DDST by using a disc of amoxicillin-clavulanate (AMC, 20/10 μg) along with four cephalosporins; cefotaxime (30 μg), ceftriaxone (30 μg), cefpodoxime (10 μg) and cefepime (50 μg), and pAmpC β-lactamase production was evaluated using cefoxitin (30 μg) as an inhibitor of pAmpC enzymes [10]. In addition, multiplex PCR of ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase genes and the disk diffusion test were conducted to identify β-lactamases genes and cephalosporin resistance patterns [17]. Overall, 26 E. coli (each 13 ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing bacteria or not) and 46 K. pneumoniae (each 23 ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing bacteria or not) samples were isolated (Table 1).
Based on information about the use of cephalosporin in animal hospitals, we chose cephalosporin antimicrobials (1 first-generation cephalosporin and 2 third-generation cephalosporins). A total of 26 E. coli and 46 K. pneumoniae isolates were inoculated into tryptic soy broth (Sigma, St. Louis, MO, USA), and these inoculated cultures were incubated at 37 °C for 4 h. The pre-enriched TSB with bacteria was inoculated into MacConkey broth (Sigma) containing first-generation cephalosporin (cephalothin (128 µg/mL; Sigma)) and incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. After enrichment, only growth-positive MacConkey broth containing cephalothin was streaked on MacConkey agar (Sigma) containing different concentrations of each third-generation cephalosporin (ceftiofur (16, 32, 64 µg/mL; Sigma) and ceftriaxone (16, 32, 64 µg/mL; Sigma)). The results of growth under different concentrations of each cephalosporin are shown in Table 2.
Based on Table 2, we determined the type and concentration of cephalosporins (cephalothin (128 µg/mL) and ceftiofur (32 µg/mL)) for the isolation of ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae.
2.2. Sampling
We sampled dogs and cats in 6 animal shelters in Mississippi between May and August 2019. Dogs and cats eligible for sample collection were those that appeared healthy and caged individually. The feces, oral, and ear samples were collected using sterile cotton swabs and maintained at approximately 4 °C during transport to the research laboratory for processing.
2.3. Isolation of ESBL- and pAmpC β-Lactamase-Producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae
All samples were analyzed following a specific process (Figure 1). After streaking on MacConkey agar plates, we selected the colony which appeared E. coli or K. pneumoniae. To identify E. coli and K. pneumoniae, PCR was carried out as previously described [18,19]. For the isolation of ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae, all E. coli and K. pneumoniae samples were analyzed by multiplex PCR of ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase genes as described above.
2.4. Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing
All ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolates were investigated for their antimicrobial resistance with the disc diffusion test using the following discs (BD): AMC (20/10 μg), ampicillin (AM, 10 μg), cefoxitin (30 μg), cefpodoxime (10 μg), chloramphenicol (30 μg), colistin (CT, 10 μg), enrofloxacin (5 μg), gentamicin (G, 10 μg), imipenem (IPM, 10 μg), nalidixic acid (NA, 30 μg), tetracycline (30 μg), and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (1.25/23.75 μg). The results were interpreted according to the CLSI guidelines [20]. E. coli ATCC 25922 was used as a control organism in the antimicrobial susceptibility tests.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Isolation of ESBL and pAmpC-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae
A total of 109 samples were analyzed in this study: 77 samples from dogs and 32 samples from cats in 6 shelters in Mississippi. Among the 109 samples, 99 (90.8%) samples were grown in MacConkey broth containing cephalothin, and 71 samples were grown on MacConkey agar containing ceftiofur (Table 3). To identify ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae, we conducted multiplex PCR of ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase genes in samples that grew or did not grow on MacConkey agar containing ceftiofur. Of the 71 samples grown on MacConkey agar containing ceftiofur, 58 isolates were identified as E. coli, and 20 isolates were identified as K. pneumoniae. All E. coli isolates harbored β-lactamase genes, and 19 K. pneumoniae isolates harbored β-lactamase genes. Among the 38 samples that did not grow in MacConkey broth containing cephalothin or on MacConkey agar containing ceftiofur, 32 isolates were identified as E. coli, and 10 isolates were identified as K. pneumoniae; β-lactamase genes were not detected in these E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolates (Table 4). Only one K. pneumoniae isolate, which was isolated from MacConkey agar containing ceftiofur, did not carry ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase genes. Dallenne et al. and Pimenta et al. reported that the absence of ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase genes may be explained by the presence of a new enzyme due to the high rate of mutations of β-lactamase genes [17,21]. By using this method, we successfully isolated ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae from all the samples from dogs and cats in just 3 days.
3.2. Characterization of ESBL and pAmpC-Producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae
Of the 78 ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae, 55 (70.5%) isolates carried 1 or more ESBL genes: CTX-M-1 (24 E. coli isolates), CTX-M-2 (4 E. coli isolates and 2 K. pneumoniae isolates), CTX-M-9 (4 E. coli isolates and 3 K. pneumoniae isolates), TEM (25 E. coli isolates and 4 K. pneumoniae isolates), and OXA-1 (7 E. coli isolates). In addition, of the 78 ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolates, 56 (71.8%) isolates carried 1 or more pAmpC β-lactamase genes: CIT (43 E. coli isolates and 7 K. pneumoniae isolates), EBC (4 E. coli isolates and 1 K. pneumoniae isolate), ACC (1 E. coli isolate and 3 K. pneumoniae isolates), FOX (1 E. coli isolate and 3 K. pneumoniae isolates), and DHA (1 E. coli isolate) (Table 5).
The major ESBL genes were the CTX-M type, and the major pAmpC β-lactamase genes were the CIT type. These findings are consistent with those of a previous study showing that the occurrence of the CTX-M-type and CIT-type genes was the highest in animals in various countries [22,23,24,25]. In Korea, the distribution of CTX-M type genes in E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolated from dogs and cats has been reported, and pAmpC β-lactamase genes, especially the CIT type, have also been detected [26]. In Europe, CTX-M type genes as well as plasmid-mediated CIT type genes have been detected in K. pneumoniae and E. coli from healthy and sick animals including food-producing animals [27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34]. These results indicated that CTX-M- and CIT-type genes have been disseminated throughout the dog and cat populations in the USA.
The other ESBL genes conferring the β-lactam resistance detected in 52.7 and 12.7% of isolates in this study were the TEM and OXA genes, respectively. The TEM and OXA genes were previously identified in clinical E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolates from companion animals in Europe, which have been found to possess resistance genes against β-lactamase inhibitors (e.g., IRT genes), making such species more of a threat [2,3,32,35,36,37,38].
We also detected various pAmpC β-lactamase genes such as EBC, ACC, FOX, and DHA. These enzymes are pAmpC β-lactamases developed through the transfer of chromosomal genes for inducible AmpC β-lactamases onto plasmids and confer a resistance pattern to most β-lactam antibiotics. Recent reports on E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolates have shown the prevalence of EBC, ACC, FOX, and DHA-like pAmpC β-lactamases in both human and animal hospitals. The existence of pAmpC β-lactamase genes poses a great challenge to infection control because they can be expressed in larger amounts and have high transmissibility to other bacterial species [39].
3.3. Antimicrobial Resistance Phenotypes
Among the 58 ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli isolates, the rates of resistance to various antimicrobials were as follows: cefpodoxime (58/58, 100.0%), ceftazidime (58/58, 100.0%), cefotaxime (58/58, 100.0%), AM (57/58, 98.3%), AMC (51/58, 87.9%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (48/58, 82.8%), CT (47/58, 81.0%), tetracycline (45/58, 77.6%), NA (38/58, 65.5%), cefoxitin (36/58, 62.1%), enrofloxacin (24/58, 41.4%), chloramphenicol (22/58, 37.9%), G (11/58, 19.0%), and IMP (0/58, 0.0%) (Figure 2). In addition, the rates of antimicrobial resistance of 20 K. pneumoniae isolates were as follows: cefpodoxime (20/20, 100.0%), ceftazidime (20/20, 100.0%), cefotaxime (20/20, 100.0%), cefoxitin (20/20, 100.0%), AM (20/20, 100.0%), AMC (20/20, 100.0%), CT (19/20, 95.0%), NA (12/20, 60.0%), chloramphenicol (1/20, 5.0%), IMP (0/20, 0.0%), tetracycline (0/20, 0.0%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (0/20, 0.0%), enrofloxacin (0/20, 0.0%), and G (0/20, 0.0%) (Figure 3). In particular, the rate of resistance to cephalosporins, AM, AMC, CT, and NA was more than 60% for both E. coli and K. pneumoniae. In addition to the resistance to most β-lactam antibiotics, ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase producers are also often resistant to quinolones and CT. This is because genes conferring resistance to quinolones and CT have been extensively reported in the same plasmid harboring β-lactamase genes [40]. In addition, ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase cause multidrug resistance, thus limiting therapeutic choices [41]. There is no resistance to IMP for both ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae, and the resistance to G was less than 20% for ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae. Therefore, IMP and G antimicrobials may be potential treatment options for ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-associated infections. The results of the present study could contribute to the improvement of therapeutic guidelines for treating dogs in veterinary hospitals in the USA.
4. Conclusions
In summary, we report the development of a method that can detect ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing bacteria. This method is a fast, and low-cost tool for the screening of frequently encountered ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing bacteria. It would assist in diagnosis and improve therapeutic treatment in animal hospitals. Our study showed that bacteria isolated by this method were identified as ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase producing bacteria in most cases.
Funding
This research received no funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
Data is contained within the article.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the research grant of the Chungbuk National University in 2022.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
- Yu, Z.; Wang, Y.; Chen, Y.; Huang, M.; Wang, Y.; Shen, Z.; Xia, Z.; Li, G. Antimicrobial resistance of bacterial pathogens isolated from canine urinary tract infections. Vet. Microbiol. 2020, 241, 108540. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Darwich, L.; Seminati, C.; Burballa, A.; Nieto, A.; Durán, I.; Tarradas, N.; Molina-López, R.A. Antimicrobial susceptibility of bacterial isolates from urinary tract infections in companion animals in Spain. Vet. Rec. 2021, 188, e60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smoglica, C.; Evangelisti, G.; Fani, C.; Marsilio, F.; Trotta, M.; Messina, F.; Di Francesco, C.E. Antimicrobial Resistance Profile of Bacterial Isolates from Urinary Tract Infections in Companion Animals in Central Italy. Antibiotics 2022, 11, 1363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Toombs-Ruane, L.J.; Marshall, J.C.; Benschop, J.; Drinković, D.; Midwinter, A.C.; Biggs, P.J.; Grange, Z.; Baker, M.G.; Douwes, J.; Roberts, M.G.; et al. Extended spectrum β-lactamase-and AmpC β-lactamase-producing Enterobacterales associated with urinary tract infections in the New Zealand community: A case-control study. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2022, 128, 325–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mahrouki, S.; Hammami, S.; Mansouri, R.; Abbassi, M.S. Overview of ESBLproducing Escherichia coli of Animal Origin in Tunisia: In the Way of the Global Spread of CTX-M β-Lactamases. Archi. Cli. Micro. 2015, 6, 4. [Google Scholar]
- Marques, C.; Belas, A.; Aboim, C.; Cavaco-Silva, P.; Trigueiro, G.; Gama, L.T.; Pomba, C. Evidence of Sharing of Klebsiella pneumoniae Strains between Healthy Companion Animals and Cohabiting Humans. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2019, 57, e01537-618. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Prescott, J.F.; Hanna, W.J.; Reid-Smith, R.; Drost, K. Antimicrobial drug use and resistance in dogs. Can. Vet. J. 2002, 43, 107–116. [Google Scholar]
- Pallett, A.; Hand, K. Complicated urinary tract infections: Practical solutions for the treatment of multiresistant Gram-negative bacteria. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2010, 65, iii25–iii33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, Y.K.; Lee, M.K.; Kim, T.H. Management of Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Positive Gram-Negative Bacterial Urologic Infections Urogenit. Tract. Infect. 2015, 10, 84–91. [Google Scholar]
- Lee, S.; Han, S.W.; Kim, K.W.; Song, D.Y.; Kwon, K.T. Third-generation cephalosporin resistance of community-onset Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae bacteremia in a secondary hospital. Korean J. Intern. Med. 2014, 29, 49–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zogg, A.L.; Simmen, S.; Zurfluh, K.; Stephan, R.; Schmitt, S.N.; Nüesch-Inderbinen, M. High Prevalence of Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase Producing Enterobacteriaceae Among Clinical Isolates From Cats and Dogs Admitted to a Veterinary Hospital in Switzerland. Front. Vet. Sci. 2018, 5, 62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Coque, T.M.; Novais, A.; Carattoli, A.; Poirel, L.; Pitout, J.; Peixe, L.; Baquero, F.; Cantón, R.; Nordmann, P. Dissemination of clonally related Escherichia coli strains expressing extended-spectrum beta-lactamase CTX-M-15. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14, 195–200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Health Organization. Critically Important Antimicrobials for Human Medicine—5th Revision; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2016; Available online: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/255027/1/9789241512220-eng.pdf?ua=1 (accessed on 25 January 2023).
- Kaur, J.; Chopra, S.; Sheevani; Mahajan, G. Modified Double Disc Synergy Test to Detect ESBL Production in Urinary Isolates of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. J. Clin. Diagn. Res. 2013, 7, 229–233. [Google Scholar]
- Drieux, L.; Brossier, F.; Sougakoff, W.; Jarlier, V. Phenotypic detection of extended-spectrum β-lactamase production in Enterobacteriaceae: Review and bench guide. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2008, 1, 90–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Naseer, F.; Iqbal, R.; Ikram, N.; Shoaib, M.; Javaid Asad, M.; Mehmood, R.T.; Niazi, A.; Asghar, A.; Ishfaq, B. Phenotypic cofirmatory disc diffusion test (PCDDT), double disc synergy test (DDST), E-test OS diagnostic tool for detection of extended spectrum beta lactamase (ESΒL) producing Uropathogens. J. Appl. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2017, 3, 344–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dallenne, C.; Da Costa, A.; Decré, D.; Favier, C.; Arlet, G. Development of a set of multiplex PCR assays for the detection of genes encoding important beta-lactamases in Enterobacteriaceae. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2010, 65, 490–495. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tayebeh, F.; Amani, J.; Nazarian, S.; Moradyar, M.; Mirhosseini, S. Molecular Diagnosis of Clinically Isolated Klebsiella pneumoniae Strains by PCR-ELISA. J. App. Biotech. Rep. 2016, 3, 501–505. [Google Scholar]
- Candrian, U.; Furrer, B.; Hofelein, C.; Meyer, R.; Jermini, M.; Lüthy, J. Detection of Escherichia coli and identification of enterotoxigenic strains by primer-directed enzymatic amplification of specific DNA sequences. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 1991, 12, 339–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Disk and Dilution Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria Isolated from Animals, 5th ed.; CLSI standard VET01; Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute: Wayne, PA, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Pimenta, A.C.; Martins, J.M.; Fernandes, R.; Moreira, I.S. Ligand-induced structural changes in TEM-1 probed by molecular dynamics and relative binding free energy calculations. J. Chem. Inf. Model. 2013, 53, 2648–2658. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rodríguez-González, M.J.; Jiménez-Pearson, M.A.; Duarte, F.; Poklepovich, T.; Campos, J.; Araya-Sánchez, L.N.; Chirino-Trejo, M.; Barquero-Calvo, E. Multidrug-Resistant CTX-M and CMY-2 Producing Escherichia coli Isolated from Healthy Household Dogs from the Great Metropolitan Area, Costa Rica. Microb. Drug Resist. 2020, 26, 1421–1428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, J.H.; Wei, S.Y.; Ma, J.Y.; Zeng, Z.L.; Lü, D.H.; Yang, G.X.; Chen, Z.L. Detection and characterisation of CTX-M and CMY-2 β-lactamases among Escherichia coli isolates from farm animals in Guangdong Province of China. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2007, 29, 576–581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Briñas, L.; Moreno, M.A.; Zarazaga, M.; Porrero, C.; Sáenz, Y.; García, M.; Dominguez, L.; Torres, C. Detection of CMY-2, CTX-M-14, and SHV-12 β-Lactamases in Escherichia coli Fecal-Sample Isolates from Healthy Chickens. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2003, 47, 2056–2058. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shin, S.W.; Jung, M.; Won, H.G.; Belaynehe, K.M.; Yoon, I.J.; Yoo, H.S. Characteristics of Transmissible CTX-M- and CMY-Type β-Lactamase Producing Escherichia coli Isolates Collected from Pig and Chicken Farms in South Korea. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2017, 27, 1716–1723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hong, J.S.; Song, W.; Park, H.M.; Oh, J.Y.; Chae, J.C.; Shin, S.; Jeong, S.H. Clonal Spread of Extended-Spectrum Cephalosporin-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae Between Companion Animals and Humans in South Korea. Front. Microbiol. 2019, 10, 1371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Palmeira, J.D.; Cunha, M.V.; Carvalho, J.; Ferreira, H.; Fonseca, C.; Torres, R.T. Emergence and Spread of Cephalosporinases in Wildlife: A Review. Animals 2021, 11, 1765. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chiaverini, A.; Cornacchia, A.; Centorotola, G.; Tieri, E.E.; Sulli, N.; Del Matto, I.; Iannitto, G.; Petrone, D.; Petrini, A.; Pomilio, F. Phenotypic and Genetic Characterization of Klebsiella pneumoniae Isolates from Wild Animals in Central Italy. Animals 2022, 12, 1347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rana, C.; Rajput, S.; Behera, M.; Gautam, D.; Vikas, V.; Vats, A.; Roshan, M.; Ghorai, S.M.; De, S. Global epidemiology of CTX-M-type β-lactam resistance in human and animal. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2022, 86, 101815. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ewers, C.; Bethe, A.; Semmler, T.; Guenther, S.; Wieler, L.H. Extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing and AmpC-producing Escherichia coli from livestock and companion animals, and their putative impact on public health: A global perspective. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2012, 18, 646–655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smet, A.; Martle, A.; Persoons, D.; Dewulf, J.; Heyndrickx, M.; Catry, B.; Herman, L.; Haesebrouck, F.; Butaye, P. Diversity of extended-spectrum β-lactamases and class C β-lactamases among cloacal Escherichia coli isolates in Belgian broiler farms. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2008, 52, 1238–1243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Widodo, A.; Effendi, M.H.; Khairullah, A.R. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli from livestock. Sys. Rev. Pharm. 2020, 11, 382–392. [Google Scholar]
- Darwich, L.; Vidal, A.; Seminati, C.; Albamonte, A.; Casado, A.; López, F.; Molina-López, R.A.; Migura-Garcia, L. High prevalence and diversity of extended-spectrum β-lactamase and emergence of OXA-48 producing Enterobacterales in wildlife in Catalonia. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0210686. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Livermore, D.M.; Canton, R.; Gniadkowski, M.; Nordmann, P.; Rossolini, G.M.; Arlet, G.; Ayala, J.; Coque, T.M.; Kern-Zdanowicz, I.; Luzzaro, F.; et al. CTX-M: Changing the face of ESBLs in Europe. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2007, 59, 165–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Garcês, A.; Lopes, R.; Silva, A.; Sampaio, F.; Duque, D.; Brilhante-Simões, P. Bacterial Isolates from Urinary Tract Infection in Dogs and Cats in Portugal, and Their Antibiotic Susceptibility Pattern: A Retrospective Study of 5 Years (2017–2021). Antibiotics 2022, 11, 1520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Naas, T.; Zerbib, M.; Girlich, D.; Nordmann, P. Integration of a transposon Tn1-encoded inhibitor-resistant β-lactamase gene, blaTEM-67 from Proteus mirabilis, into the Escherichia coli chromosome. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2003, 47, 19–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pomba, C.; da Fonseca, J.D.; Baptista, B.C.; Correia, J.D.; Mart´ınez-Mart´ınez, L. Detection of the pandemic O25-ST131 human virulent Escherichia coli CTX-M-15-producing clone harboring the qnrB2 and aac(6’)-Ib-cr genes in a Dog. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2009, 53, 327–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Costa, D.; Poeta, P.; Sàenz, Y.; Vinué, L.; Rojo-Bezares, B.; Jouini, A.; Zarazaga, M.; Rodrigues, J.; Torres, C. Detection of Escherichia coli harbouring extended-spectrum beta-lactamases of the CTX-M, TEM and SHV classes in faecal samples of wild animals in Portugal. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2006, 58, 1311–1312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marchese, A.; Arlet, G.; Schito, G.C.; Lagrange, P.H.; Philippon, A. Characterization of FOX-3, an AmpC-type plasmid-mediated β-lactamase from an Italian isolate of Klebsiella oxytoca. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1998, 42, 464–467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nakayama, T.; Kumeda, Y.; Kawahara, R.; Yamaguchi, T.; Yamamoto, Y. Carriage of colistin-resistant, extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli harboring the mcr-1 resistance gene after short-term international travel to Vietnam. Infect. Drug Resist. 2018, 11, 391–395. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bartoloni, A.; Pallecchi, L.; Riccobono, E.; Mantella, A.; Magnelli, D.; Di Maggio, T.; Villagran, A.L.; Lara, Y.; Saavedra, C.; Strohmeyer, M.; et al. Relentless increase of resistance to fluoroquinolones and expanded spectrum cephalosporins in Escherichia coli: 20 years of surveillance in resource-limited settings from Latin America. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2013, 9, 356–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Figure 1.
Schematic workflow for isolation of ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae. TSB, tryptic soy broth.
Figure 1.
Schematic workflow for isolation of ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae. TSB, tryptic soy broth.
Figure 2.
Characteristics of 58 ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli isolates from dogs and cats. CPD, cefpodoxime; CAZ, ceftazidime; CTX, cefotaxime; FOX, cefoxitin; AM, ampicillin; AMC, amoxicillin-clavulanate; IPM, imipenem; TE, tetracycline; SXT, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole; NA, nalidixic acid; ENR, enrofloxacin; G, gentamicin; CT, colistin; C, chloramphenicol.
Figure 2.
Characteristics of 58 ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli isolates from dogs and cats. CPD, cefpodoxime; CAZ, ceftazidime; CTX, cefotaxime; FOX, cefoxitin; AM, ampicillin; AMC, amoxicillin-clavulanate; IPM, imipenem; TE, tetracycline; SXT, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole; NA, nalidixic acid; ENR, enrofloxacin; G, gentamicin; CT, colistin; C, chloramphenicol.
Figure 3.
Characteristics of 20 ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing K. pneumoniae isolates from dogs and cats. CPD, cefpodoxime; CAZ, ceftazidime; CTX, cefotaxime; FOX, cefoxitin; AM, ampicillin; AMC, amoxicillin-clavulanate; IPM, imipenem; TE, tetracycline; SXT, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole; NA, nalidixic acid; ENR, enrofloxacin; G, gentamicin; CT, colistin; C, chloramphenicol.
Figure 3.
Characteristics of 20 ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing K. pneumoniae isolates from dogs and cats. CPD, cefpodoxime; CAZ, ceftazidime; CTX, cefotaxime; FOX, cefoxitin; AM, ampicillin; AMC, amoxicillin-clavulanate; IPM, imipenem; TE, tetracycline; SXT, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole; NA, nalidixic acid; ENR, enrofloxacin; G, gentamicin; CT, colistin; C, chloramphenicol.
Table 1.
History of E. coli and K. pneumoniae used in this study for the development of an isolation method.
Table 1.
History of E. coli and K. pneumoniae used in this study for the development of an isolation method.
| No. | DDST a Test | Bacteria | Animal | Origin | ESBL and pAmpC β-Lactamase Genes | Resistance Pattern of Cephalosporins b |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Wound | TEM, OXA-1, CTX-M-1, CIT | CEP, FOX, CPD |
| 2 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Wound | TEM, OXA-1, CTX-M-1, CIT | CEP, FOX, CPD |
| 3 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Wound | TEM, OXA-1, CTX-M-1, CIT | CEP, FOX, CPD |
| 4 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | TEM, OXA-1, CTX-M-1 | CEP, FOX, CPD |
| 5 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | TEM, OXA-1, CTX-M-1 | CEP, FOX, CPD |
| 6 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Abscess | TEM, OXA-1, CTX-M-1 | CEP, FOX, CPD |
| 7 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Wound | TEM, OXA-1, CTX-M-1 | CEP, CPD |
| 8 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | TEM, OXA-1, CTX-M-1 | CEP, CPD |
| 9 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | TEM, OXA-1, CTX-M-1 | CEP, CPD |
| 10 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | TEM, OXA-1, CTX-M-1 | CEP, CPD |
| 11 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Ear | TEM, OXA-1 | CEP, CPD |
| 12 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Drain | TEM, OXA-1 | CEP, CPD |
| 13 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Wound | TEM, OXA-1 | CEP, CPD |
| 14 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Ear | TEM, OXA-1 | CEP, CPD |
| 15 | + | K. pneumoniae | Feline | Abscess | TEM, OXA-1 | CEP, CPD |
| 16 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Skin swab | CIT | CEP, FOX, CPD |
| 17 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Wound | CTX-M-1 | CEP, CPD |
| 18 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Bronchial aspirate | TEM | CEP, CPD |
| 19 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Biopsy lung | TEM | CEP, FOX |
| 20 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Nasopharyngeal swab | TEM | CEP, FOX |
| 21 | + | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Wound | TEM | CEP, CPD |
| 22 | + | K. pneumoniae | Equine | Catheter | TEM | CEP |
| 23 | + | K. pneumoniae | Equine | wound | TEM | CEP |
| 24 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Wound | - | - |
| 25 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 26 | - | K. pneumoniae | Equine | Gastric aspirate | - | - |
| 27 | - | K. pneumoniae | Equine | Tracheal aspirate | - | - |
| 28 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 29 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Wound | - | - |
| 30 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Prostatic fluid | - | - |
| 31 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Systemic Infection | - | - |
| 32 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 33 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Ear | - | - |
| 34 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 35 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Ear | - | - |
| 36 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Wound | - | - |
| 37 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 38 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 39 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 40 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Skin swab | - | - |
| 41 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Ascitic fluid | - | - |
| 42 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 43 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 44 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 45 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 46 | - | K. pneumoniae | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 47 | + | E. coli | Canine | Urine | TEM, OXA-1, CTX-M-1 | CEP, CPD |
| 48 | + | E. coli | Canine | Urine | TEM, CIT | CEP, FOX, CPD |
| 49 | + | E. coli | Canine | Urine | OXA-1, CTX-M-1 | CEP, CPD |
| 50 | + | E. coli | Canine | Urine | CIT | CEP, FOX, CPD |
| 51 | + | E. coli | Canine | Urine | CIT | CEP, FOX, CPD |
| 52 | + | E. coli | Canine | Urine | CIT | CEP, FOX, CPD |
| 53 | + | E. coli | Canine | Urine | CIT | CEP, FOX, CPD |
| 54 | + | E. coli | Canine | Urine | CIT | CEP, CPD |
| 55 | + | E. coli | Canine | Urine | CIT | CEP, CPD |
| 56 | + | E. coli | Canine | Urine | CTX-M-1 | CEP, CPD |
| 57 | + | E. coli | Canine | Urine | TEM | CEP |
| 58 | + | E. coli | Canine | Urine | TEM | CEP |
| 59 | + | E. coli | Canine | Urine | TEM | CEP |
| 60 | - | E. coli | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 61 | - | E. coli | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 62 | - | E. coli | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 63 | - | E. coli | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 64 | - | E. coli | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 65 | - | E. coli | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 66 | - | E. coli | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 67 | - | E. coli | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 68 | - | E. coli | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 69 | - | E. coli | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 70 | - | E. coli | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 71 | - | E. coli | Canine | Urine | - | - |
| 72 | - | E. coli | Canine | Urine | - | - |
a DDST, double disc synergy test; + indicate that was DDST Test positive; - indicate that was DDST Test negative. b CEP, cephalothin; FOX, cefoxitin CPD, cefpodoxime.
Table 2.
Prevalence of E. coli and K. pneumoniae growth under different concentrations of each cephalosporin.
Table 2.
Prevalence of E. coli and K. pneumoniae growth under different concentrations of each cephalosporin.
| Bacteria | No. of Grown Bacteria (%) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First-Generation Cephalosporin | Third-Generation Cephalosporin | ||||||
| Cephalothin (μg/mL) | Ceftiofur (μg/mL) | Ceftriaxone (μg/mL) | |||||
| 128 | 16 | 32 | 64 | 16 | 32 | 64 | |
| ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli (n = 13) | 13 (100.0) | 13 (100.0) | 13 (100.0) | 7 (53.8) | 10 (76.9) | 7 (53.8) | 5 (38.5) |
| Non ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli (n = 13) | 10 (76.9) | 5 (38.5) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (23.1) | 1 (7.7) | 1 (7.7) |
| ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing K. pneumoniae (n = 23) | 23 (100.0) | 23 (100.0) | 22 (95.7) | 16 (69.6) | 20 (87.0) | 18 (78.3) | 14 (60.9) |
| Non ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing K. pneumoniae (n = 23) | 17 (73.9) | 13 (61.5) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 8 (34.8) | 5 (21.7) | 4 (17.4) |
Table 3.
Distribution of growth under each cephalosporin in samples isolated from dogs and cats.
| Total Number of Samples | No. of Samples That Grew or Did Not Grow in MacConkey Broth Containing Cephalothin (%) | No. of Samples That Grew or Did Not Grow on MacConkey Agar Containing Ceftiofur (%) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 109 | Grew | 99 (90.8) | Grew | 71 (65.1) |
| Did not grow | 28 (25.7) | |||
| Did not grow | 10 (9.2) | Grew | 0 (0.0) | |
| Did not grow | 10 (9.2) | |||
Table 4.
Distribution of E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolates from dog and cat samples.
| No. of Samples | Bacteria | No. of Bacteria Isolates | No. of Bacteria Isolates Detected β-Lactamase Gene(s) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Grew on MacConkey agar containing ceftiofur | |||
| 71 | E. coli | 58 | 58 |
| K. pneumoniae | 20 | 19 | |
| Did not grow on MacConkey agar containing ceftiofur | |||
| 38 | E. coli | 32 | 0 |
| K. pneumoniae | 10 | 0 | |
Table 5.
Distribution of ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase genes in ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolates from dogs and cats.
Table 5.
Distribution of ESBL and pAmpC β-lactamase genes in ESBL- and pAmpC β-lactamase-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae isolates from dogs and cats.
| Genotype | No. of ESBL and pAmpC β-Lactamase Genes | |
|---|---|---|
| E. coli | K. pneumoniae | |
| CIT | 43 | 7 |
| TEM | 25 | 4 |
| CTX-M-1 | 24 | 0 |
| CTX-M-9 | 4 | 3 |
| OXA-1 | 7 | 0 |
| CTX-M-2 | 4 | 2 |
| EBC | 4 | 1 |
| ACC | 1 | 3 |
| FOX | 1 | 3 |
| DHA | 1 | 0 |
| Total | 114 | 23 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
MDPI and ACS Style
Seo, K.-W. Development of a Method for the Fast Detection of Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase- and Plasmid-Mediated AmpC β-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae from Dogs and Cats in the USA. Animals 2023, 13, 649. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13040649
AMA Style
Seo K-W. Development of a Method for the Fast Detection of Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase- and Plasmid-Mediated AmpC β-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae from Dogs and Cats in the USA. Animals. 2023; 13(4):649. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13040649
Chicago/Turabian StyleSeo, Kwang-Won. 2023. "Development of a Method for the Fast Detection of Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase- and Plasmid-Mediated AmpC β-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae from Dogs and Cats in the USA" Animals 13, no. 4: 649. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13040649
Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.
