Simultaneous Presence of Antibodies against Five Respiratory Pathogens in Unvaccinated Dairy Calves from South-Western Poland
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Sample Collection
2.1.1. Samples
2.1.2. Calves
2.1.3. Herds and Region
2.2. Tests
2.3. Statistical Analysis
2.3.1. Sample Size Calculations
- n—required sample size;
- Pexp—expected prevalence;
- d—desired absolute precision.
- n—number of samples from the herd;
- p1—probability of detecting at least one infected calf;
- N—number of animals in the herd;
- d—minimum number of affected animals expected in the herd (N × expected prevalence).
2.3.2. Results Analysis
- <0.2—no relationship between the studied variables;
- 0.2–0.4—weak dependence;
- 0.4–0.7—moderate dependence;
- 0.7–0.9—significant dependence;
- 0.9<—very strong dependence.
2.3.3. Software
2.4. Ethics Statement
3. Results
3.1. Overall Results
3.2. Seroprevalences
3.3. Configurations
3.4. Correlations
4. Discussion
4.1. Regional Conditions
4.2. Pathogen Reservoirs
4.3. Seroprevalences
4.4. Correlations and Coocurrences
4.5. Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Buczinski, S.; Achard, D.; Timsit, E. Effects of calfhood respiratory disease on health and performance of dairy cattle: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Dairy Sci. 2021, 104, 8214–8227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wang, M.; Schneider, L.G.; Hubbard, K.J.; Smith, D.R. Cost of bovine respiratory disease in preweaned calves on US beef cow-calf operations (2011–2015). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2018, 253, 624–631. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- van der Fels-Klerx, H.J.; Saatkamp, H.W.; Verhoeff, J.; Dijkhuizen, A.A. Effects of bovine respiratory disease on the productivity of dairy heifers quantified by experts. Livest. Prod. Sci. 2002, 75, 157–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blakebrough-Hall, C.; McMeniman, J.P.; González, L.A. An evaluation of the economic effects of bovine respiratory disease on animal performance, carcass traits, and economic outcomes in feedlot cattle defined using four BRD diagnosis methods. J. Anim. Sci. 2020, 98, skaa005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Donlon, J.D.; McAloon, C.G.; Hyde, R.; Aly, S.; Pardon, B.; Mee, J.F. A systematic review of the relationship between housing environmental factors and bovine respiratory disease in preweaned calves—Part 2: Temperature, relative humidity and bedding. Vet. J. 2023, 300–302, 106032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Donlon, J.D.; McAloon, C.G.; Hyde, R.; Aly, S.; Pardon, B.; Mee, J.F. A systematic review of the relationship between housing environmental factors and bovine respiratory disease in preweaned calves—Part 1: Ammonia, air microbial count, particulate matter and endotoxins. Vet. J. 2023, 300–302, 106031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Witkowska, D.; Ponieważ, A. The Effect of Housing System on Disease Prevalence and Productive Lifespan of Dairy Herds—A Case Study. Animals 2022, 12, 1610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gaudino, M.; Nagamine, B.; Ducatez, M.F.; Meyer, G. Understanding the mechanisms of viral and bacterial coinfections in bovine respiratory disease: A comprehensive literature review of experimental evidence. Vet. Res. 2022, 53, 70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saegerman, C.; Gaudino, M.; Savard, C.; Broes, A.; Ariel, O.; Meyer, G.; Ducatez, M.F. Influenza D virus in respiratory disease in Canadian, province of Québec, cattle: Relative importance and evidence of new reassortment between different clades. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2022, 69, 1227–1245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Werid, G.M.; Van, T.D.; Miller, D.; Hemmatzadeh, F.; Fulton, R.W.; Kirkwood, R.; Petrovski, K. Bovine Parainfluenza-3 Virus Detection Methods and Prevalence in Cattle: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Animals 2024, 14, 494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Milićević, V.; Šolaja, S.; Glišić, D.; Ninković, M.; Milovanović, B.; Đorđević, M.; Ristevski, S.; Spasojević, F.; Dačić, M. Bovine Parainfluenza Virus 3 and Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus: Dominant Viral Players in Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex among Serbian Cattle. Animals 2024, 14, 1458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Studer, E.; Schönecker, L.; Meylan, M.; Stucki, D.; Dijkman, R.; Holwerda, M.; Glaus, A.; Becker, J. Prevalence of BRD-Related Viral Pathogens in the Upper Respiratory Tract of Swiss Veal Calves. Animals 2021, 11, 1940. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pratelli, A.; Cirone, F.; Capozza, P.; Trotta, A.; Corrente, M.; Balestrieri, A.; Buonavoglia, C. Bovine respiratory disease in beef calves supported long transport stress: An epidemiological study and strategies for control and prevention. Res. Vet. Sci. 2021, 135, 450–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Guo, T.; Zhang, J.; Chen, X.; Wei, X.; Wu, C.; Cui, Q.; Hao, Y. Investigation of viral pathogens in cattle with bovine respiratory disease complex in Inner Mongolia, China. Microb. Pathog. 2021, 153, 104594. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yoshitani, G.D.; Camilo, S.L.O.; Fritzen, J.T.T.; Oliveira, M.V.; Lorenzetti, E.; Lisbôa, J.A.N.; Alfieri, A.F.; Alfieri, A.A. Serological Profile for Major Respiratory Viruses in Unvaccinated Cows from High-Yielding Dairy Herds. Animals 2024, 14, 1256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klima, C.L.; Zaheer, R.; Cook, S.R.; Booker, C.W.; Hendrick, S.; Alexander, T.W.; McAllister, T.A. Pathogens of bovine respiratory disease in North American feedlots conferring multidrug resistance via integrative conjugative elements. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2014, 52, 438–448. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Makoschey, B.; Berge, A.C. Review on bovine respiratory syncytial virus and bovine parainfluenza—Usual suspects in bovine respiratory disease—A narrative review. BMC Vet. Res. 2021, 17, 261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mitra, N.; Cernicchiaro, N.; Torres, S.; Li, F.; Hause, B.M. Metagenomic characterization of the virome associated with bovine respiratory disease in feedlot cattle identified novel viruses and suggests an etiologic role for influenza D virus. J. Gen. Virol. 2016, 97, 1771–1784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abd El Fadeel, M.R.; El-Dakhly, A.T.; Allam, A.M.; Farag, T.K.; El-Kholy, A.A.-M. Preparation and efficacy of freeze-dried inactivated vaccine against bovine viral diarrhea virus genotypes 1 and 2, bovine herpes virus type 1.1, bovine parainfluenza-3 virus, and bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Clin. Exp. Vaccine Res. 2020, 9, 119–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Centeno-Martinez, R.E.; Glidden, N.; Mohan, S.; Davidson, J.L.; Fernández-Juricic, E.; Boerman, J.P.; Schoonmaker, J.; Pillai, D.; Koziol, J.; Ault, A.; et al. Identification of bovine respiratory disease through the nasal microbiome. Anim. Microbiome 2022, 4, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raszek, M.M.; Le Guan, L.; Plastow, G.S. Use of Genomic Tools to Improve Cattle Health in the Context of Infectious Diseases. Front. Genet. 2016, 7, 30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Klimentowski, S.; Folwarczny, J.; Rypuła, K. Infections of the respiratory tract caused by viruses—Serological survey. Med. Weter. 1995, 51, 459–461. [Google Scholar]
- Dudek, K.; Nicholas, R.A.J.; Szacawa, E.; Bednarek, D. Mycoplasma bovis Infections-Occurrence, Diagnosis and Control. Pathogens 2020, 9, 640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fulton, R.W.; Briggs, R.E.; Payton, M.E.; Confer, A.W.; Saliki, J.T.; Ridpath, J.F.; Burge, L.J.; Duff, G.C. Maternally derived humoral immunity to bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) 1a, BVDV1b, BVDV2, bovine herpesvirus-1, parainfluenza-3 virus bovine respiratory syncytial virus, Mannheimia haemolytica and Pasteurella multocida in beef calves, antibody decline by half-life studies and effect on response to vaccination. Vaccine 2004, 22, 643–649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tuncer, P.; Yeşilbağ, K. Serological detection of infection dynamics for respiratory viruses among dairy calves. Vet. Microbiol. 2015, 180, 180–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Socha, W.; Larska, M.; Rola, J.; Bednarek, D. Occurrence of bovine coronavirus and other major respiratory viruses in cattle in Poland. J. Vet. Res. 2022, 66, 479–486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rypuła, K.; Płoneczka-Janeczko, K.; Kita, J.; Kumala, A.; Zmudziński, J.F. Seroprevalence of BHV-1 (bovine herpesvirus type 1) among non-vaccinated dairy cattle herds with respiratory disorders. Pol. J. Vet. Sci. 2012, 15, 561–563. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Urban-Chmiel, R.; Wernicki, A.; Puchalski, A.; Dec, M.; Stęgierska, D.; Grooms, D.L.; Barbu, N.I. Detection of bovine respiratory syncytial virus infections in young dairy and beef cattle in Poland. Vet. Q. 2015, 35, 33–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bednarek, D.; Ayling, R.D.; Nicholas, R.A.J.; Dudek, K.; Szymańska-Czerwinska, M. Serological survey to determine the occurrence of respiratory Mycoplasma infections in the Polish cattle population. Vet. Rec. 2012, 171, 45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thrusfield, M.; Brown, H.; Diggle, P.J.; French, N.; Howe, K.; Kelly, L.; O’Connor, A.; Sargeant, J.; Wood, H. Veterinary Epidemiology; Wiley Blackwell: Oxford, UK, 2018; ISBN 9781118280263. [Google Scholar]
- Lin, G.; Chai, J.; Yuan, S.; Mai, C.; Cai, L.; Murphy, R.W.; Zhou, W.; Luo, J. VennPainter: A Tool for the Comparison and Identification of Candidate Genes Based on Venn Diagrams. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0154315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pasińska, D. Polish foreign trade in cattle in the years 2004–2015. Annals PAAAE 2017, XIX, 154–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stanisław, W.; Lech, J.J.; Łukasz, N.; Grzegorz, N. Housing systems for dairy cattle in the Wielkopolska region—current status and prospects. Przegląd Hod. 2013, 6, 15–17. [Google Scholar]
- Białowieża National Park Website. Available online: https://bpn.com.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=64&Itemid=115&lang=pl (accessed on 18 August 2024).
- Klich, D.; Didkowska, A.; Pyziel-Serafin, A.M.; Perlińska-Teresiak, M.; Wołoszyn-Gałęza, A.; Żoch, K.; Balcerak, M.; Olech, W. Contact between European bison and cattle from the cattle breeders’ perspective, in the light of the risk of pathogen transmission. PLoS ONE 2023, 18, e0285245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krzysiak, M.K.; Jabłoński, A.; Iwaniak, W.; Krajewska, M.; Kęsik-Maliszewska, J.; Larska, M. Seroprevalence and risk factors for selected respiratory and reproductive tract pathogen exposure in European bison (Bison bonasus) in Poland. Vet. Microbiol. 2018, 215, 57–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rola, J.; Larska, M.; Socha, W.; Rola, J.G.; Materniak, M.; Urban-Chmiel, R.; Thiry, E.; Żmudziński, J.F. Seroprevalence of bovine herpesvirus 1 related alphaherpesvirus infections in free-living and captive cervids in Poland. Vet. Microbiol. 2017, 204, 77–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jacevičius, E.; Šalomskas, A.; Milius, J.; Petkevičius, S.; Jacevičienė, I.; Pridotkas, G.; Mockeliūnas, R.; Malakauskas, A.; Morkūnas, M. Five year serological study of bovine herpesvirus Type-1 in cattle in Lithuania. Bull. Vet. Inst. Pulawy 2010, 54, 289–292. [Google Scholar]
- Hussain, K.J.; Al-Farwachi, M.I.; Hassan, S.D. Seroprevalence and risk factors of bovine respiratory syncytial virus in cattle in the Nineveh Governorate, Iraq. Vet. World 2019, 12, 1862–1865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wernicki, A.; Urban-Chmiel, R.; Stęgierska, D.; Adaszek, Ł.; Kalinowski, M.; Puchalski, A.; Dec, M. Detection of the bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) in young beef cattle in eastern and south-eastern regions of Poland. Pol. J. Vet. Sci. 2015, 18, 141–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wernicki, A.; Urban-Chmiel, R.; Rola, J.; Socha, W.; Stęgierska, D.; Dec, M.; Puchalski, A. Prevalence of bovine herpes virus type 1 in small herds of young beef cattle in south-eastern Poland—A preliminary study. Bull. Vet. Inst. Pulawy 2015, 59, 467–472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rola, J.G.; Larska, M.; Grzeszuk, M.; Rola, J. Association between antibody status to bovine herpesvirus 1 and quality of milk in dairy herds in Poland. J. Dairy Sci. 2015, 98, 781–789. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Socha, W.; Rola, J. Prevalence of bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) infections in cattle population in Poland. Med. Weter. 2013, 69, 288–290. [Google Scholar]
- Szacawa, E.; Niemczuk, K.; Dudek, K.; Bednarek, D.; Rosales, R.; Ayling, R. Mycoplasma bovis infections and co-infections with other Mycoplasma spp. with different clinical manifestations in affected cattle herds in eastern region of Poland. Bull. Vet. Inst. Pulawy 2015, 59, 331–338. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Larska, M.; Tomana, J.; Socha, W.; Rola, J.; Kubiś, P.; Olech, W.; Krzysiak, M.K. Learn the Past and Present to Teach the Future—Role of Active Surveillance of Exposure to Endemic and Emerging Viruses in the Approach of European Bison Health Protection. Diversity 2023, 15, 535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Didkowska, A.; Klich, D.; Hapanowicz, A.; Orłowska, B.; Gałązka, M.; Rzewuska, M.; Olech, W.; Anusz, K. Pathogens with potential impact on reproduction in captive and free-ranging European bison (Bison bonasus) in Poland—A serological survey. BMC Vet. Res. 2021, 17, 345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dudek, K.; Bednarek, D.; Szacawa, E.; Ayling, R.D.; Krzysiak, M.K.; Marczuk, J. A serological and molecular study on the occurrence of mycoplasmas in European bison (Bison bonasus) from two areas of Eastern Poland. Pol. J. Vet. Sci. 2015, 18, 881–883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chicoski, L.M.; Fritzen, J.T.T.; Lorenzetti, E.; da Costa, A.R.; Moro, E.; de Carvalho, E.R.; Alfieri, A.F.; Alfieri, A.A. Serological profile of respiratory viruses in unvaccinated steers upon their arrival at Brazilian feedlot facilities. Braz. J. Microbiol. 2023, 54, 3237–3244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yousef, M.; Mahmoud, M.; Ali, S.; AlBlowi, M. Seroprevalence of some bovine viral respiratory diseases among non vaccinated cattle in Saudi Arabia. Vet. World 2013, 6, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fulton, R.W.; Purdy, C.W.; Confer, A.W.; Saliki, J.T.; Loan, R.W.; Briggs, R.E.; Burge, L.J. Bovine viral diarrhea viral infections in feeder calves with respiratory disease: Interactions with Pasteurella spp., parainfluenza-3 virus, and bovine respiratory syncytial virus. Can. J. Vet. Res. 2000, 64, 151–159. [Google Scholar]
- Hägglund, S.; Svensson, C.; Emanuelson, U.; Valarcher, J.F.; Alenius, S. Dynamics of virus infections involved in the bovine respiratory disease complex in Swedish dairy herds. Vet. J. 2006, 172, 320–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shirvani, E.; Lotfi, M.; Kamalzadeh, M.; Noaman, V.; Bahriari, M.; Morovati, H.; Hatami, A. Seroepidemiological study of bovine respiratory viruses (BRSV, BoHV-1, PI-3V, BVDV, and BAV-3) in dairy cattle in central region of Iran (Esfahan province). Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2012, 44, 191–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ghaemmaghami, S.; Ahmadi, M.; Deniko, A.; Mokhberosafa, L. Serological study of BVDV and BHV-1 infections in industrial dairy herds of Arak, Iran. Iran. J. Vet. Sci. Technol. 2013, 5, 53–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Noaman, V.; Nabinejad, A.R. Seroprevalence and risk factors assessment of the three main infectious agents associated with abortion in dairy cattle in Isfahan province, Iran. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2020, 52, 2001–2009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gaeta, N.C.; Ribeiro, B.L.M.; Alemán, M.A.R.; Yoshihara, E.; Marques, E.C.; Hellmeister, A.N.; Pituco, E.M.; Gregory, L. Serological investigation of antibodies against respiratory viruses in calves from Brazilian family farming and their relation to clinical signs of bovine respiratory disease. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2018, 38, 642–648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Regulation of the Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development of 4 August 2017 on the Introduction of a Program for the Control of Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis/Pustular Vulvovaginitis and Bovine Viral Diarrhea and Mucous Membrane Disease in Selected Cattle Herds. Available online: https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20170001722 (accessed on 6 July 2024).
- Ostler, J.B.; Jones, C. The Bovine Herpesvirus 1 Latency-Reactivation Cycle, a Chronic Problem in the Cattle Industry. Viruses 2023, 15, 552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Roshtkhari, F.; Mohammadi, G.; Mayameei, A. Serological evaluation of relationship between viral pathogens (BHV-1, BVDV, BRSV, PI-3V, and Adeno3) and dairy calf pneumonia by indirect ELISA. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2012, 44, 1105–1110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lachowicz-Wolak, A.; Klimowicz-Bodys, M.D.; Płoneczka-Janeczko, K.; Bykowy, M.; Siedlecka, M.; Cinciała, J.; Rypuła, K. The Prevalence, Coexistence, and Correlations between Seven Pathogens Detected by a PCR Method from South-Western Poland Dairy Cattle Suffering from Bovine Respiratory Disease. Microorganisms 2022, 10, 1487. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
0 | + | ++ | +++ | ++++ | +++++ | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BoAHV1 | Val≤ | 30% | <Val≤ | 67% | <Val≤ | 104% | <Val≤ | 141% | <Val≤ | 178% | <Val |
BVDV | Val≤ | 20% | <Val≤ | 40% | <Val≤ | 60% | <Val≤ | 80% | <Val≤ | 100% | <Val |
BRSV | Val≤ | 23% | <Val≤ | 46% | <Val≤ | 68% | <Val≤ | 91% | <Val≤ | 114% | <Val |
BPIV3 | Val≤ | 26% | <Val≤ | 52% | <Val≤ | 78% | <Val≤ | 104% | <Val≤ | 130% | <Val |
M. bovis | Val≤ | 29% | <Val≤ | 47% | <Val≤ | 64% | <Val≤ | 82% | <Val≤ | 100% | <Val |
Configuration | |||
---|---|---|---|
No. of Pathogen-Specified Antibodies in Configuration | Pathogen’s Name | No. of Positive Results | % of All Positive Results |
1 | BPIV3 | 1 | 0.33% |
BRSV | 3 | 0.98% | |
BoAHV1 | 78 | 25.49% | |
2 | BPIV3, M. bovis | 1 | 0.33% |
BRSV, BPIV3 | 9 | 2.94% | |
BVDV, BPIV3 | 1 | 0.33% | |
BoAHV1, BRSV | 1 | 0.33% | |
3 | BRSV, BPIV3, M. bovis | 1 | 0.33% |
BVDV, BPIV3, M. bovis | 1 | 0.33% | |
BVDV, BRSV, M. bovis | 1 | 0.33% | |
BVDV, BRSV, BPIV3, | 7 | 2.29% | |
BoAHV1, BPIV3, M. bovis | 1 | 0.33% | |
BoAHV1, BRSV, BPIV3, | 2 | 0.65% | |
4 | BVDV, BRSV, BPIV3, M. bovis | 141 | 46.08% |
BoAHV1, BRSV, BPIV3, M. bovis | 1 | 0.33% | |
BoAHV1, BVDV, BPIV3, M. bovis | 1 | 0.33% | |
5 | BoAHV1, BVDV, BRSV, BPIV3, M. bovis | 56 | 18.30% |
At least one | - | 306 | 100% |
Correlations | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
BoAHV1 | BVDV | BRSV | BPIV3 | M. bovis | |
BoAHV1 | 1 | 0.055 | 0.0567 | 0.059 | 0.078 |
BVDV | 1 | 0.933 * | 0.947 * | 0.954 * | |
BRSV | 1 | 0.966 * | 0.916 * | ||
BPIV3 | 1 | 0.929 * | |||
M. bovis | 1 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Lachowicz-Wolak, A.; Klimowicz-Bodys, M.D.; Płoneczka-Janeczko, K.; Bednarski, M.; Dyba, K.; Knap, P.; Rypuła, K. Simultaneous Presence of Antibodies against Five Respiratory Pathogens in Unvaccinated Dairy Calves from South-Western Poland. Animals 2024, 14, 2520. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14172520
Lachowicz-Wolak A, Klimowicz-Bodys MD, Płoneczka-Janeczko K, Bednarski M, Dyba K, Knap P, Rypuła K. Simultaneous Presence of Antibodies against Five Respiratory Pathogens in Unvaccinated Dairy Calves from South-Western Poland. Animals. 2024; 14(17):2520. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14172520
Chicago/Turabian StyleLachowicz-Wolak, Agnieszka, Małgorzata D. Klimowicz-Bodys, Katarzyna Płoneczka-Janeczko, Michał Bednarski, Kamil Dyba, Piotr Knap, and Krzysztof Rypuła. 2024. "Simultaneous Presence of Antibodies against Five Respiratory Pathogens in Unvaccinated Dairy Calves from South-Western Poland" Animals 14, no. 17: 2520. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14172520