What Occurs within the Mangrove Ecosystems of the Douala Region in Cameroon? Exploring the Challenging Governance of Readily Available Woody Resources in the Wouri Estuary

Abstract

Mangrove ecosystems provide key ecosystem services in coastal areas. This study describes the riparian mangrove of the Wouri estuary, in the Douala region (Cameroon), emphasizing the changes in this ecosystem over the past decade and its current state. It highlights the different groups of actors who participate in the management and regulation of the resource. Finally, an analysis of the governance of the mangrove wood resource based on the theory of common goods by Elinor Ostrom (1990) is proposed by examining the results obtained from the previous points. The scientific interest lies in contributing to a better understanding of the socio-ecological changes in the mangrove in the context of increasing anthropogenic pressures, highlighting the governance challenges and conservation opportunities in a strategic region of Central Africa. This research reveals complex processes that characterize mangrove ecosystems on the Manoka and Cap Cameroon Islands. The lack of urbanization regulations, continued infrastructure growth, repeated flooding, and coastal erosion all have a negative impact on natural landscapes and forests. The use of wood for smoking and fishing, as well as coastal pollution resulting from deficient garbage management, also have a considerable influence. Strategic interventions are needed to ensure sustainable ecosystem management. Recommendations include the application of rules to prevent forest overexploitation.

1. Introduction

Mangroves stand out as unique wetland ecosystems found along coastal regions in the tropics and subtropics, and they are of paramount importance in maintaining the healthy functioning of coastal ecosystems [1]. In Africa, their overall extent is estimated at approximately 3.2 million hectares, with a distribution of 63% along the Atlantic coast and 37% along the coasts of the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea [2].

Furthermore, mangrove forests, crucial for coastal communities as a source of livelihood [3], play an essential role in enriching estuarine and coastal environments with nutrients through their litter [4]. These ecosystems are widely recognized globally as some of the most productive natural ecosystems, including essential nurseries for a multitude of aquatic species [1]. Their importance as such for many coastal communities, whose livelihoods largely depend on fishing, is undeniable, highlighting their crucial role in the food security and economic well-being of these populations [2]. First, they provide a wide range of services, including material services such as fishery products, timber, firewood, fodder, and medicinal plants [2]. They also offer cultural services, such as ecotourism, leisure, aesthetic appreciation, and religious aspects [1]. Thus, many inherent values or functions of mangrove ecosystems have led to a significant increase in their exploitation [1].

Finally, in addition to their socio-economic and cultural functions, mangroves also play a very important ecological and environmental role. They provide regulating services such as erosion prevention, protection against storms, cyclones, floods, nutrient retention, groundwater recharge, and climate regulation [4]. In addition to these services, mangroves play a crucial role in carbon sequestration, helping to mitigate climate change by absorbing and storing large quantities of CO₂ [5]. They also serve as essential nurseries for many marine species, supporting biodiversity and local fisheries [6].

However, the overexploitation of woody resources, particularly mangroves in the Wouri estuary, by various groups of actors, treated as a common good with a low capacity for exclusion and growing rivalry, has led to a reduction in their fundamental productivity [1,7]. This situation therefore raises issues for their maintenance and sustainability.

Furthermore, the alarming decline experienced by mangroves is mainly due to human activities [8]. Indeed, the degradation of mangroves is attributed to several human-induced factors, including the overexploitation of resources, the conversion of mangrove regions for other purposes such as pond aquaculture, the deposition of residual debris, and urbanization [2]. In Cameroon, mangrove forests occupy an estimated area of 233,000 hectares [9]. They represent the largest mangrove cover in Central Africa, and the sixth largest in all of Africa [10]. Just like those in the rest of Africa, Cameroon’s mangroves face similar threats, and the causes of their degradation are varied and mainly due to human activities. Overexploitation of resources, conversion of mangrove areas for other purposes such as landfill detritus, urbanization, and the expansion of industrial agriculture, as well as the indirect effects of pollution, are among the main reasons for the degradation and loss of these ecosystems in Cameroon [11].

Because of the considerable impact of mangroves at the economic, social, and environmental levels, the country has demonstrated its adherence to conventions (Conventions on Biological Diversity, Ramsar and Abidjan Conventions) and the development of regulatory and operational tools to ensure the sustainable management of coastal ecosystems [9]. Despite the critical significance of this resource and the regulatory measures in existence, the governance framework that oversees its access and regeneration is mostly ineffective [9]. This inefficiency mainly arises from institutional fragmentation and a lack of coordination among the different agencies involved, leading to jurisdictional conflicts and gaps in the application of regulations [9]. Additionally, insufficient financial and human resources limit the capacity of authorities to monitor and manage mangrove ecosystems effectively [9].

This study takes place in the context where this vital resource is facing increasing pressures because of rapid population growth and unplanned urbanization. This situation raises major concerns regarding the preservation and sustainable management of this crucial ecosystem for the region and beyond. Thus, this research seeks to understand the changes and governance in the management of mangroves in the Wouri estuary.

To achieve this objective, this study describes the riparian mangrove of the Wouri estuary, in the Douala region (Cameroon), emphasizing the dynamics of this ecosystem over the past decade and its current state. Subsequently, it highlights the different groups of actors who participate in the management and regulation of the resource. Finally, an analysis of the governance of the mangrove wood resource based on the theory of common goods by Elinor Ostrom [12] is proposed.

The scientific interest lies in contributing to a better understanding of the socio-ecological dynamics of the mangrove in a context of increasing anthropogenic pressures by highlighting the governance challenges and conservation opportunities in a strategic region of Central Africa.

2. Conceptual and Theoretical Framework

Mangroves are considered common goods within the meaning of the typology of goods [13]. Any good whose exploitation is not regulated is considered a common good because it is non-exclusive (it is impossible to exclude a user from the use of the resource) and rival (the consumption of a well by a user reduces the quantity available for other users) [14].

However, since they are common pool resources, resources such as mangroves are prone to overexploitation. Indeed, this overexploitation of common goods was especially demonstrated by Hardin [15] in his famous article “The Tragedy of the Commons” [14]. Several theories have been established aiming to explain the issues of the overexploitation of these resources, as well as efforts to design remedies to the tragedy of the commons. This is essentially the theory of the commons.

2.1. Concept of Common Goods

Common goods refer to resources shared within a community of users, belonging to everyone rather than to an individual [16]. Ostrom et al. [17] identified two forms of negative externalities in their management. The first concerns the appropriation of the cash flows generated by these resources, where a lack of cooperation can lead to overexploitation. In this case, each user fully benefits from the quantities collected while only assuming a fraction of the collection costs. Aristotle noted that what is common often receives less attention than what is private [16]. The second form of externality concerns the continuous production of the common good and the management of the stock of resources, where collective overexploitation encourages harmful behavior. Understanding these principles facilitates the assessment of the governance of common resources and the prevention of the tragedy of the commons, thereby promoting responsible and sustainable use.

2.2. Tragedy of the Commons Theory

The tragedy of the commons, asHardin [15] explains using the prisoner’s dilemma game, highlights the propensity for non-cooperation in the management of common resources, where each actor may be tempted to maximize their own profits at the expense of the common good. This perspective is particularly relevant to mangrove management, where communication and collaboration challenges can lead to overexploitation [16].

Hardin [15] proposed several solutions to this tragedy, including privatization, the introduction of coercive laws, and the use of tax measures. However, their practical application can be complex, especially in the case of mangroves, because of the difficulty in regulating access to these areas (free environment) and enforcing regulations [14]. It is in this context that Ostrom [12] develops eight key principles that, when respected, could encourage communities of actors to preserve common resources [16].

Indeed, Ostrom [12]’s principles offer a valuable theoretical framework for approaching the management of common resources such as mangroves. They especially emphasize the importance of stakeholder engagement in the development of management rules, as well as the need for an effective system to resolve potential conflicts. This participatory and decentralized approach can contribute to more sustainable and equitable management of mangroves [18].

Furthermore, it is crucial to recognize that these principles, although broad, require assessment on a case-by-case basis for appropriate implementation [16]. Thus, this research evaluates the application of these principles, as stated by Ostrom, in the context of mangroves. Their analysis improved our understanding of the challenges linked to the excessive exploitation and degradation of mangroves on the Cameroonian islands of Manoka and Cape Cameroon.

3. Material and Methods

3.1. Study Area

This research was mostly conducted on the island of Manoka, situated in the downstream region of the Wouri River estuary. The northern region of Manoka Island is home to four distinct camps, namely, Dahomey, Kalacuta, Nyangadou, and Sandjè. An investigation was conducted on the camp of Cap Cameroun, which is situated at the entrance of the Wouri estuary. The camp of Cap Cameroun consists of New Kombo, while the camp of Toubé is composed of Grand Toubé and small Toubé. The selection of these camps was made to provide a comprehensive and inclusive representation of the area (Figure 1).

In addition, the selection of this study’s area was driven by the existence of many camps, ongoing exploitation of the mangrove, a significant number of smokehouses, enhanced oven activities, and vulnerability to coastal erosion and marine submersion. The Wouri River estuary has significant importance in the economic landscape of the Central African sub-region, as highlighted by Mbaha and Tchounga [19]. It holds 60% of Cameroon’s industrial sector and around 24% of the mangroves in the area. Furthermore, as emphasized by Kana et al. [9], the area is characterized by the existence of extensive industrial oil palm and rubber plantations that flourish in low-lying and very humid conditions. Hence, the selection of Manoka as a research site was predicated upon a confluence of climatic, ecological, and economic considerations that render it an advantageous site for investigating the intricate matters associated with the utilization of mangroves, environmental consequences, and sustainability obstacles in the Wouri River estuary area.

To better situate this study in its ecological context, it should be noted that the Wouri estuary is home to a diversity of mangrove species, including six native species and one introduced species, which constitute the woody floristic background of the mangroves of Cameroon, as reported by MINEPDED studies [20]. The region’s mangroves are mainly dominated by Rhizophora racemosa, with almost mono-specific zones, followed by Avicennia germinans, which occupy around 5% of the areas covered by mangroves [20]. These ecosystems are also characterized by a floristic monospecificity and the presence of other companion species, including Drepanocarpus lunatus, Dalbergia ecastaphylum, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Phoenix reclinata, Acrostichum aureum, Pandanus candelabrum, and many others [20]. The mangroves of the Wouri estuary cover areas such as Mouanko, Mbiako, Yoyo, Manoka, and Cap Cameroun, with a multitude of fisheries sites, thus highlighting their ecological and socio-economic importance in the region [20]. By integrating this information on the floristic composition and spatial distribution of mangroves, this study can better contextualize its results in the physical and ecological framework of the Wouri estuary. The location of the research area is shown in Figure 1.

3.2. Methodology

To achieve the objectives of characterizing the changes in the ecosystem and the actors involved in the exploitation of mangroves in Manoka and Cap Cameroun, two groups of participants were considered in this study. These include households exploiting mangrove wood and operators exploiting logs from these mangroves. Before the sampling phase, a visual enumeration inventory of the two participant groups was carried out during April and May 2022, to identify all the actors and households concerned.

We chose only the campgrounds that had kitchens or smoking areas near the mangrove habitat. The inventory concluded with the registration of 467 households that utilize mangrove wood and 50 actors that exploit mangrove logs.

Afterward, the sample for this investigation was formed using stratified random sampling. In addition, the stratification was carried out according to the geographical complexity of the islands and with the decision to investigate all the camps. With a 33% sampling rate, we were able to collect data from 155 out of the 467 households or kitchens recorded. A sample of 20 log operators out of 50 mangrove log operators identified in Cap Cameroun were selected using a 40% sampling rate for operators of washers and logs. As shown in

Table 1. Structure of the study sample by camp.

Locality	Women	Men		Total
	Household	Household	Log Operators
Cap Cameroon	37	19	20	76
Manoka	27	17	00	44
Toubé Grand	23	07	00	30
Toubé Small	15	07	00	22
New-Kombo	01	02	00	03
Total	103	52	20	175
Resource people
	Number
Cap Cameroon	09
Manoka	05
Toubé Grand	02
Toubé Small	02
New-Kombo	01
Total	19

, a total of 175 people were included in the sample.

Semi-structured interviews using an interview guide were conducted, consisting of discussions with resource people (let 19 people) (Table 1), particularly decentralized services of the Ministry of the Environment, Nature Protection and Sustainable Development (MINEPDED), the Ministry of Forests and Wildlife (MINFOF), and the Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries, and Animal Industries (MINEPIA) for the Littoral administrative region. In addition to traditional and municipal authorities, stakeholders in mangrove wood exploitation were also interviewed for this study. Each of the selected camps had a focus group. Focus groups were organized in the different targeted camps.

3.3. Data Processing and Analysis Methods

In this research, data processing and analysis were conducted using three separate methodological approaches as follows: qualitative, quantitative, and descriptive methodologies. Qualitative data obtained in the field was subjected to the qualitative approach, enabling their categorization and comparison with other available sources of information. This methodology prioritized the depiction and elucidation of empirical evidence, relying on direct observation, physical analysis, and description of events. This study used a quantitative approach to analyze socio-economic data, questionnaires conducted with resource operators, and satellite data. Excel and specialized software, such as SPSS, were used to process the questionnaires and analyze the data, enabling the generation of tables and graphs.

The research area was presented geographically and diachronic developments were shown using the descriptive approach. It provided a visual representation of the data by mapping the research region and illustrating the changes that occurred over time. The delineation of land use classes on the islands of Manoka and Cap Cameroon was conducted based on a collection of satellite data. The Earth Explorer platform was used to acquire satellite data, ensuring that the cloud cover remained below 10%. In this study, supervised classification using the likelihood method was used to analyze changes in mangroves and land use on the islands of Manoka and Cape Cameroon between 1975 and 2016. Geographic mapping was carried out using ArcGIS and CorelDraw, to identify spatial changes in land use classes. This methodology has also been used in previous research, such as the study conducted by Mbaha and Tchounga [19]. Hence, drawing upon Ostrom’s ideas, this research ascertains the fundamental factors that contribute to the sustainable and equitable management of valuable water resources, particularly mangroves. Consequently, it sheds light on potential strategies for enhancing governance within this geographical area.

4. Results

4.1. Context and Changes in Mangroves in the Islands of Manoka and Cap Cameroon through the Spatial Approach

4.1.1. Land Occupation of Manoka Island and Cap Cameroun in 1975 and 2016

The supervised classification using the likelihood method enabled the observation of the ecological changes in mangroves as well as land use for the years of this study (Figure 2 and Figure 3). The analysis of cartographic data over the period from 1975 to 2016 for the two islands shows, firstly, that these areas are mainly composed of forests and mangroves (Figure 2 and Figure 3). In this context, the term “forest” refers to terrestrial ecosystems distinct from mangroves, characterized by vegetation adapted to dry areas.

Inhabited areas (built structures), areas of tidal flats (coastal areas), and the course of the river occupy a relatively small part, mainly concentrated at the ends. This predominance of forests and mangroves highlights the presence of pioneer fronts on these islands, both in terms of the extent and marked presence of mangroves. On the other hand, a careful analysis of these maps reveals a temporal evolution in the configuration of land use. These changes are reflected by a significant and gradual reduction in the areas occupied by mangroves, in contrast to the expansion of degraded mangrove areas in 2016. Furthermore, in 2016, an expansion of watercourses to the detriment of forest and mangrove areas can be observed in the Manoka Islands (Scheme 1).

These developments reveal the significant impact of the overexploitation of these resources over this period. On the other hand, on the island of Cap Cameroon (Figure 3), apart from the expansion of areas of degraded mangroves, we rather observe an evolution of housing and mudflats to the detriment of forests and mangroves. These results highlight a temporal transformation in the configuration of land use. This transformation results in a notable and progressive reduction in areas occupied by mangroves, in contrast to the increase in areas of altered mangroves in 2016. In addition, an expansion of watercourses at the expense of forest and mangrove areas was observed in 2016 on Manoka Island. These changes reveal the significant consequences of the overexploitation of these resources during this period.

4.1.2. Changes in the Surface Areas of the Different Land Use Classes

The surface areas were extracted to provide information on the spatial changes in different land use classes for the two islands, as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4 illustrates an increase in the surface area of buildings, mudflats, and the river on the island of Manoka, with a rise of 67.86%, 18.30%, and 29.78%, respectively, between 1975 and 2016. Furthermore, the degraded mangrove surface area has increased by 54.79%, while the overall area of mangroves on the island has declined.

Similarly, on Cap Cameroon Island, there has been a significant increase in the surface area of buildings, mudflats, and the river, with an increase of 78.44%, 29.85%, and 28.74%, respectively. As the mangrove has deteriorated significantly, the surface area of degraded mangroves has increased by 66.47%.

4.2. Characterization of the Different Categories of Actors Involved in the Management of Mangroves on the Islands of Manoka and Cap Cameroon

4.2.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Mangrove Operators

The exploitation of mangrove wood is an activity carried out by a diversity of actors from diverse origins. Thus, the results concerning the socio-demographic characteristics of the operators demonstrate a predominance of Nigerian actors, representing 70.86% of the surveyed population. Cameroonians represent around 20% of the population surveyed with a minority of Ghanaians and Nigeriens. This highlights the extent of the phenomenon of migration in this Cameroonian area. In addition, the significant presence of Nigerians among mangrove operators demonstrates the mobility of this population towards the Cameroonian region, thus influencing the local socio-economic landscape. These migration dynamics may be linked to perceived economic opportunities or other factors that shape migrants’ engagement in the exploitation of mangrove resources.

The survey revealed that 58.85% of respondents were female, with local variations in that percentage; 41.15 percent were male, primarily for business purposes in Cap Cameroun. The significant representation of women in the sample can be ascribed to their preponderance in duties associated with cooking, smoking (designating facilities where foods such as meats are smoked for preservation or to give them a specific flavor), and pole exploitation (referring to mangrove branches used by women for various functions, which are detailed below), all of which were explicitly performed by women in the camps that were investigated. While the men mainly deal with the exploitation of logs.

There are two predominant age groups as follows: 35.43 percent fall within the 31–40 age range, and 36.57 percent fall within the 41–50 age range. The preponderance of senior individuals in the sample may be attributed to the fact that mangrove exploitation primarily appeals to operators who possess the requisite material resources to engage in this endeavor. At 8%, the smallest age group, 20 to 30 years old, is less prevalent.

The length of time spent engaged in logging activities varies with respect to seniority. In Cap Cameroun, where the mangrove wood trade is intensive, some actors have a temporary involvement, while others carry out this activity permanently. The majority of operators have between 11 and 20 years of experience (34.29%), followed by those with 21–30 years and 6–10 years of experience. These results might be explained by the preponderance of elderly participants in the sample who have engaged in mangrove-related activities for years. The diversity of actors engaged in the exploitation of mangrove wood is illustrated in

Table 2. Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents.

Variables	Description	Proportion (%)
Origin	Cameroonian	20.57
	Nigerian	70.86
	Ghanaian	4.57
	Nigerien	4.00
Gender	Male	41.15
	Female	58.85
Age (years)	20–30	8.00
	31–40	35.43
	41–50	36.57
	51–60	13.14
	61–70	6.86
Seniority (years)	≤5	6.86
	6–10	24.57
	11–20	34.29
	21–30	24.00
	≥31	10.28

. This diversity encompasses variations in seniority, gender, age, and origin, in addition to distinct dynamics of participation in the exploitation of mangroves that are specific to each studied locality.

4.2.2. Characterization of the Actors Involved in the Management of Mangrove Resources

In the management of mangroves in Cameroon, several ministries and institutions are involved, notably, the Ministry of the Environment, Nature Protection, Sustainable Development (MINEPDED), the Ministry of Livestock, Fisheries, and Industries Animals (MINEPIA), and the Ministry of Forests and Wildlife (MINFOF) (

Table 3. Functions and limits of the different institutions involved in mangrove management.

Institutions	Functions	Weaknesses or Limitations
MINFOF	✓ Regulation of mangrove timber exploitation. ✓ Issuance of operating access documents.	✓ Limited field monitoring due to large encampments. ✓ Difficulty controlling the entrances of cutters despite the presence of forest guards.
MINEPIA	✓ Management and control of artisanal fishing. ✓ Identification in the camps under the name “Docta Fish”	✓ Limited perception of operators, limited to the management of fishery resources. ✓ Lack of involvement in the control of wood and its harvesting area despite control equipment.
MINEPDED	✓ Not known.	✓ Non-involvement in mangrove management according to operators.

). Although MINFOF grants authorizations for the extraction of mangrove wood, its control over the activities of the holders is limited, with camps being difficult to monitor. MINEPIA, although not explicitly responsible for mangrove management, exercises control over artisanal fishing, while its involvement in the monitoring of mangrove resources is discussed. The absence of institutions clearly involved in mangrove management (MINEPDED) allows operators to collect resources without real control.

Local groups are actively involved in the preservation of mangrove ecosystems, mainly through fishing and income-generation activities. However, their engagement in the direct management of mangroves is limited. Despite the commitment demonstrated by several government and private institutions, coordination gaps were observed, which could compromise the effective and sustainable management of mangroves. Analysis of departmental operations reveals a lack of decentralization in decision-making at the local level, which goes against Ostrom’s principle. Insufficient coordination between the institutions involved could contribute to the progressive decline of mangroves in these regions. The mangrove timber exploitation chain and the link between the actors involved are shown in Figure 5.

4.2.3. Analysis of Forms of Mangrove Exploitation

Through participant observation and the organization of actors surrounding the mangrove timber resource, it was possible to understand the forms of exploitation. According to the FAO, logging includes cutting, extracting, processing on-site or at the pier, and loading trees, trunks, or other parts of the tree onto trucks. Several forms of exploitation have been identified in the camps (Figure 6).

The findings showed that 69.74% of mangrove wood is utilized for cooking and smoking purposes. The predominant use of mangrove wood, at 69.74%, as fuel for smoking and cooking is closely linked to the central activity of the camps, namely, artisanal fishing, semi-industrial fishing (using more advanced methods and equipment with a stronger commercial orientation), and smoking fish. The diversity of actors and the availability of smoking and cooking facilities shape the potential use of wood. About 11% of the usage is dedicated to the manufacturing of fishing equipment, while 15.13% of the population employs it in the construction of homes, smokehouses, and kitchens.

Regarding medicinal or traditional uses, this represents 3.22% of the sample. Within the camps, some consider the mangrove as a sacred forest from which harvesting must be limited. This perspective imbues a deep conviction about the need to restrict harvesting, elevating the mangrove to the status of a natural sanctuary. This perception, combining traditional respect and ecological awareness, influences attitudes toward the sustainable management of this crucial ecosystem. Discussions on the uses of mangrove wood also made it possible to identify the fuels used in the camps. The result is that mangrove wood, used as a source of energy, serves as fuel in all households surveyed. However, 5.16% of respondents use charcoal from mangroves, a secondary use of mangrove wood, and 3.23% also use gas and liquefied oil. It is also noted that 1.94% of respondents use other continental species as a source of energy.

These results demonstrate that mangroves are utilized for a variety of purposes, including construction and energy production (e.g., cooking and smoking), as well as fishing equipment manufacturing. Nevertheless, the considerable need for mangrove timber to support critical activities like cooking and fishing indicates the possibility of this resource being exploited to an excessive degree.

The preference for mangrove wood as fuel, combined with a variety of uses, highlights significant pressure on local mangrove resources. Additionally, increased reliance on mangrove wood for daily activities, particularly in the context of fishing and smoking, may contribute to the reduction in mangrove areas, as suggested by the gradual decrease in occupied spaces by mangroves in land use maps over time. The extension of degraded mangrove areas and the widening of watercourses at the expense of forest and mangrove areas highlight the harmful consequences of overexploitation, causing an alteration of the ecosystem and a modification of coastal landscapes. Thus, the direct implications of these results point to the urgent need to implement sustainable management strategies to curb the overexploitation of mangroves while meeting the socio-economic needs of local communities and preserving the ecological integrity of these ecosystems.

The analysis of mangrove wood exploitation reveals the following two main practices: exploitation of wood discs or logs and exploitation of poles, involving systematic, partial, or gardening cuts. To exploit slices, actors first identify mature trees, cut them down, and then process the slices to transport them to sales sites. The method of logging mangroves involves partial cutting or gardening, selecting species based on their value and importance. During the period of high demand, called “djanga”, the frequency of daily cutting increases, with on average one tree felled per day outside this period. This seasonal variation highlights the vulnerability of mangroves to overexploitation, thus highlighting the need for sustainable management taking into account seasonal variations. The exploitation of perch in the mangroves attracts a diversity of actors (n = 155), mainly women who own kitchens and smokehouses, as well as fishermen and woodcutters. The poles are used for various purposes such as smoking fish, firewood, and construction in camps. Harvest periods are influenced by the artisanal fishing season, concentrating activities between July and September, with temporary variations depending on the camps. Regulating these practices is crucial to ensure resource sustainability and mangrove regeneration, given the selective exploitation of resources according to the needs of these industries. The periods of fishing exploitation and storage by each stakeholder are represented in

Table 4. Distribution of fishing exploitation and storage periods by stakeholders.

Camps	December to January	February	May	July–August	September	Buy When Needed (All Times of the Year)
Cap Cameroon	1.29%	1.29%	0.65%	21.94%	9.68%	1.29%
Manoka	-	-	-	1.94%	25.81%	0.65%
New-Koumbo	-	-	-	1.94%
Toubé Grand	-	-	-	12.26%	5.81%	1.29%
Toubé Small	-	-	-	10.32%	3.87%
Total	1.29%	1.29%	0.65%	48.39%	45.16%	3.23%

These results come from the responses collected from farmers when they were each asked to indicate their usual period (months) of cutting and storing wood or fishing during the year.

.

4.3. Analysis of the Governance of Mangrove Wood Resources Based on Elinor Ostrom’s Theory of Common Goods

Examining mangrove governance in light of Elinor Ostrom’s principles highlights several gaps. First of all, access rights and management rules lack clarity, which raises questions about the precise definition of usage and access rights, particularly given the significant presence of Nigerian operators. Furthermore, the regulations in place do not appear to be sufficiently aligned with observed trends, highlighting the need for continuous assessment to ensure their relevance. Although the participation of stakeholders is democratic, the lack of coordination between local institutions and associations could compromise effective mangrove management. Clarifying roles and responsibilities, educating operators, and strengthening sanction enforcement are crucial measures to improve governance. Likewise, the creation of an organization specialized in conflict resolution and the autonomy of local authorities are aspects that should not be neglected. Finally, establishing strong links between institutions is essential to ensure sustainable and unified management of mangroves, thus highlighting the importance of recommendations for viable alternatives.

5. Discussion

The results highlight the socio-demographic diversity of operators, with the notable presence of foreign actors, such as Nigeriens, Nigerians, and Ghanaians, potentially attributable to various factors, such as political instability [21]. This forced migration can lead to the diversification of livelihoods, including the exploitation of local natural resources, as observed in the context of the mangroves studied [22]. Natural resource management also involves various government entities, but levels of engagement vary, with limited emphasis on effective monitoring of mangrove timber harvesting by MINFOF and a stronger focus by MINEPIA towards fisheries and artisanal fishing rather than mangrove management. Despite the presence of local organizations campaigning for sustainable environmental management, their impact on mangrove management appears limited, highlighting coordination gaps between stakeholders and insufficient authority [23]. These results highlight the need for an adaptive approach taking into account local specificities and the unique dynamics of each geographical area for the effective and sustainable management of mangroves.

The results highlight a deviation from the principle of decentralization of local decision-making recommended by Ostrom, with difficulties in coordination among institutions likely to worsen mangrove degradation. Ostrom’s eight principles emphasize the transparency of rights and resources, the adaptation of rules to local specificities, democratic participation, and the establishment of sanctions mechanisms and conflict resolution to strengthen institutional coordination j [24]. Strengthening coordination among the organizations involved, with an emphasis on the inclusion of local stakeholders and decentralization of decision-making, is crucial to achieving sustainable mangrove management. This can be achieved by strengthening local institutions and actively involving various stakeholders, including women’s organizations and local NGOs, to improve knowledge and establish effective mechanisms for monitoring and controlling mangrove timber harvesting [23].

Active engagement of local stakeholders, as recommended by Ndzodo et al. [25], promotes understanding of diverse perspectives and helps mitigate conflicts. This can allow a better understanding of perceptions and needs regarding the use and management of natural resources, promoting more sustainable and balanced approaches. Despite this, the lack of concrete engagement from key government institutions in these places can be attributed to a lack of regulations and standards governing mangrove management in the Wouri estuary, as noted by Dzalla Ngangue [26]. Because of the absence of regulations and standards governing mangrove management in the Wouri estuary, government institutions face practical obstacles in implementing concrete interventions, thereby compromising the ability to effectively engage stakeholders local and promote sustainable approaches. These challenges may especially include stakeholder resistance, lack of financial and technical resources, and conflicts of interest among the different actors involved [26].

Changes observed in the islands of Manoka and Cape Cameroon between 1975 and 2016 reveal rapid urbanization induced in part by anthropogenic activities, such as the creation of fishing camps, as mentioned by Kana et al. [9]. This increasing urbanization, accompanied by the presence of local and international fishermen, puts pressure on natural spaces, leading to a decline in biodiversity, particularly mangroves and forests, as mentioned by Mbaha and Tchounga [19].

The creation of residential areas exposed to marine submersion and coastal erosion contributes significantly to the degradation of ecosystems in these regions, while the results reveal an expansion of water bodies and mudflats, attributed to physical phenomena such as flooding and coastal erosion. These recurring floods favor the proliferation of water bodies and move fishermen towards mangrove areas, as reported by ENVI-Rep Cameroon in 2010 and confirmed by Mbevo et al. [27], which highlight the negative impacts on coastal ecosystems, marine and coastal biodiversity, and fishing and aquaculture activities. Furthermore, a decrease in the area of forests and mangroves has been observed, mainly because of logging, according to Wild and McLeod [18], which reports a 40% reduction in the area of mangroves in Cameroon because of the growing demand for wood. In addition, oil and gas exploitation activities, as well as the creation of open dumps, contribute to the deterioration of soil and water, thus worsening the decline in mangroves and promoting the spread of invasive Nypa palms, according to Numbere [28].

Mbaha and Tchounga [19] also highlights a significant decrease occurring in the natural environment. The natural areas in the Wouri estuary had a reduction of 29.70% in their total area for 38 years, resulting in an annual loss of 0.78 hectares. Next, we have the issue of mangrove contamination. The distribution of fishing goods, whether in their fresh or processed form, occurs among the mangroves of the Wouri estuary. This process entails the extensive devastation of mangrove forests, specifically to smoke fishing items, which may be carried out by both men and women. The deterioration may also be attributed to the spreading of Nypa palms, which is underutilized, although it has the potential to be used for constructing roofs and producing juice [29]. In Asia and Oceania, the fruit of the palm tree is eaten and used for juice production, while the leaves are employed in the building of roofs [29]. The deterioration of mangroves is further exacerbated by pollution practices, namely, the absence of garbage cans in artisanal boats and the engagement in polluting behaviors [30].

The predominant and diversified uses of mangrove wood were highlighted, with its main use as fuel for smoking and cooking in the camps by 69.74% of respondents. This high demand for mangrove wood for essential activities, such as fishing and cooking, highlights the central role of this resource in local communities. However, this increased dependence exposes mangroves to potential overexploitation, as evidenced by land use maps that show a gradual decrease in mangrove areas over time. The conversion of mangroves into degraded areas and the widening of watercourses at the expense of these ecosystems highlight the urgency of sustainable management to preserve the balance between human needs and the ecological preservation of mangroves. Therefore, the predominant artisanal fishing in the areas of Manoka and Cap Cameroun requires measures to mitigate human impacts on declining resources. To reduce the environmental consequences of fish smoking, the promotion of improved smokehouses can contribute to more sustainable conservation of resources while reducing pressure on mangroves. The degradation of the mangroves raises concerns among international organizations and the scientific community. Several authors [31,32,33] have previously put forward proposals aimed at promoting sustainable management of the mangrove as a distinct, precious, and natural resource.

For the successful implementation of such solutions, strengthened governance of natural resources is essential. It is imperative to raise awareness among all stakeholders involved, from fishermen to local authorities, about the environmental benefits of improved smokehouses. This awareness must be accompanied by the rigorous application of existing legislation, aimed at establishing rational and sustainable management practices. Effective monitoring and control mechanisms are needed to ensure compliance with standards and encourage the widespread adoption of these more sustainable practices. Ultimately, these solutions match those from previous studies carried out in the same country [26,33,34]. In his study, Nfotabong [33] developed a sustainable management process for the mangrove, including several key stages. This involves the creation and legalization of a local association responsible for management (activity 1), the development of a management plan by this association (activity 2), the delimitation of the exploitation sites allocated to the camps grouped by zone (activity 3), reforestation of degraded areas (activity 4), and sustainable promotion of ecotourism potential (activity 5). Nfotabong [34] also highlighted the importance of a cooperative approach considering the needs of local communities who exploit the mangrove in an abusive manner, often because of the lack of alternatives such as domestic gas and the promotion of microprojects.

However, the country’s participation in international treaties implies a need for political coordination at the national level to guarantee the effective implementation of international commitments in terms of preserving the coastal environment. Specifically, increased collaboration with other nations and international organizations may be necessary to strengthen conservation efforts and address transboundary challenges related to mangrove management. Thus, these different integrated alternatives also reflect approaches consistent with Ostrom’s principles, aiming for balanced and collective management of this vital natural resource.

6. Conclusions

This research examines the use of wood resources in the Wouri estuary, specifically focusing on the islands of Manoka and Cap Cameroon. It highlights a series of complex changes between anthropogenic activities, environmental pressures, and socio-economic challenges, which together influence the development of these regions. The findings underscore the diversity of mangrove operators, characterized by a notable prevalence of foreign operators, mostly attributed to immigration. The deficient presence of governing bodies in the field, along with the inadequate collaboration between governmental institutions and local stakeholders, exposes gaps in the sustainable management of resources, requiring a more inclusive and cohesive approach.

Furthermore, this study highlights the constant degradation of mangroves, reflected by the loss of mangrove areas and the progression of degraded areas, mainly because of uncontrolled urbanization, logging, and the impact of floods. This degradation has a profound impact on biodiversity, water quality, and the livelihoods of local communities. However, these results also highlight the crucial economic role of the mangrove for coastal populations, while warning of the significant environmental repercussions of its intensive exploitation.

At the end of this study, we are able to propose the use of appropriate fishing equipment and the promotion of improved smoking rooms as alternative measures, offering prospects for mitigating negative impacts on mangrove ecosystems. However, better governance of natural resources is essential to ensure rational and sustainable management. This therefore implies reinforced coordination between the different entities involved, as well as continued awareness-raising and rigorous application of regulations.