Association between Combined Metals and PFAS Exposure with Dietary Patterns: A Preliminary Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Cohort and Design
2.2. Calculation of DII Scores
2.3. Statistical Analysis
2.3.1. Descriptive Statistics
2.3.2. Bayesian Kernel Machine Regression
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of the Sample Population
3.2. Correlation between Environmental Contaminants Variables and the DII
3.3. BKMR Analysis
3.3.1. Posterior Inclusion Probability of Environmental Contaminants with DII
3.3.2. Univariate Association of the DII and Combined PFAS and Heavy Metals
3.3.3. Bivariate Exposure–Response Function
3.3.4. Overall Exposure Effect of the DII in Relation to PFAS and Heavy Metal Exposure Percentiles
3.3.5. Single-Variable Effects of PFAS and Metals with the DII
3.3.6. Single-Variable Interaction Terms of PFAS and Metals on the DII
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Proportion | Std. Error | 95% Confidence Interval | |
---|---|---|---|
Gender @ DII | |||
Male—0 | 0.624 | 0.031 | 0.556, 0.689 |
Male—1 | 0.453 | 0.010 | 0.432, 0.475 |
Female—0 | 0.375 | 0.031 | 0.311, 0.444 |
Female—1 | 0.547 | 0.010 | 0.525, 0.568 |
Ethnicity @DII | |||
1—0 | 0.101 | 0.020 | 0.0661,0.153 |
1—1 | 0.0875 | 0.016 | 0.0589, 0.128 |
2—0 | 0.0748 | 0.012 | 0.0533,0.104 |
2—1 | 0.0664 | 0.009 | 0.0492, 0.0889 |
3—0 | 0.628 | 0.034 | 0.553, 0.697 |
3—1 | 0.630 | 0.025 | 0.575, 0.682 |
4—0 | 0.0781 | 0.012 | 0.0555, 0.109 |
4—1 | 0.120 | 0.017 | 0.0875, 0.162 |
5—0 | 0.0655 | 0.011 | 0.0458, 0.0927 |
5—1 | 0.0504 | 0.009 | 0.319, 0.0721 |
6—0 | 0.0522 | 0.016 | 0.0266, 0.0997 |
6—1 | 0.0464 | 0.005 | 0.0367, 0.0585 |
Alcohol @ DII | |||
Yes—0 | 0.941 | 0.010 | 0.915, 0.960 |
Yes—1 | 0.914 | 0.006 | 0.898, 0.928 |
No—0 | 0.0588 | 0.010 | 0.0403, 0.0853 |
No—1 | 0.0858 | 0.007 | 0.0724, 0.102 |
Smoking @DII | |||
Yes—0 | 0.400 | 0.227 | 0.352, 0.449 |
Yes—1 | 0.419 | 0.0167 | 0.384, 0.455 |
No—0 | 0.600 | 0.023 | 0.551, 0.648 |
No—1 | 0.581 | 0.017 | 0.545, 0.616 |
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Variable | * Participants (n) | Mean | Standard Error (SE) | Minimum | Maximum |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (Years) | 9254 | 34.3 | 25.5 | 0.00 | 80.0 |
BMI (kg/m2) | 8005 | 26.6 | 8.26 | 12.3 | 86.2 |
Lead (µg/dL) | 6884 | 1.08 | 1.29 | 0.050 | 42.5 |
Cadmium (µg/L) | 7513 | 0.374 | 0.503 | 0.070 | 13.0 |
Mercury (µg/L) | 7513 | 1.14 | 2.27 | 0.200 | 63.6 |
PFOA (ng/mL) | 1929 | 1.71 | 1.82 | 0.140 | 52.9 |
PFOS (mg/mL) | 1929 | 6.51 | 7.74 | 0.140 | 105 |
DII | 7495 | 1.79 | 1.59 | −4.34 | 5.15 |
Mean | Std. Error | 95% Confidence Interval | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|
PFOA | ||||
0 | 1.92 | 0.154 | 1.59, 2.25 | 0.137 |
1 | 0.170 | 0.066 | 1.56, 1.84 | |
PFOS | ||||
0 | 6.56 | 0.504 | 5.48, 7.63 | 0.067 |
1 | 5.64 | 0.219 | 5.18, 6.11 | |
Lead | ||||
0 | 1.06 | 0.073 | 0.904, 1.22 | 0.263 |
1 | 1.00 | 0.054 | 0.957, 1.16 | |
Cadmium | ||||
0 | 0.357 | 0.024 | 0.307, 0.409 | 0.360 |
1 | 0.382 | 0.014 | 0.352, 0.411 | |
Mercury | ||||
0 | 1.51 | 0.079 | 1.19, 1.66 | <0.0001 |
1 | 1.07 | 0.060 | 0.929, 1.17 | |
Age in Year | ||||
0 | 46.0 | 0.875 | 44.1, 47.8 | <0.0001 |
1 | 37.0 | 0.509 | 35.9, 38.1 | |
BMI | ||||
0 | 28.0 | 0.351 | 27.2, 28.7 | 0.390 |
1 | 28.0 | 0.237 | 27.1, 28.1 |
DII | Coefficient * | Std. Error | p-Value | 95% Confidence Interval |
---|---|---|---|---|
PFOA | −0.035 | 0.053 | 0.520 | −0.149, 0.079 |
PFOS | −0.008 | 0.011 | 0.471 | −0.030, 0.015 |
Lead | 0.016 | 0.058 | 0.787 | −0.108, 0.140 |
Cadmium | 0.369 | 0.013 | 0.012 | 0.092, 0.647 |
Mercury | −0.123 | 0.031 | 0.001 | −0.189, −0.057 |
Variable | PIP |
---|---|
Lead | 0.560 |
Cadmium | 1.000 |
Mercury | 1.000 |
PFOA | 0.592 |
PFOS | 0.852 |
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Odediran, A.; Obeng-Gyasi, E. Association between Combined Metals and PFAS Exposure with Dietary Patterns: A Preliminary Study. Environments 2024, 11, 127. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11060127
Odediran A, Obeng-Gyasi E. Association between Combined Metals and PFAS Exposure with Dietary Patterns: A Preliminary Study. Environments. 2024; 11(6):127. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11060127
Chicago/Turabian StyleOdediran, Augustina, and Emmanuel Obeng-Gyasi. 2024. "Association between Combined Metals and PFAS Exposure with Dietary Patterns: A Preliminary Study" Environments 11, no. 6: 127. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11060127