How Ethical Behavior Is Considered in Different Contexts: A Bibliometric Analysis of Global Research Trends

Abstract

In the past, sustainable development was considered a guideline for all human activities, but the world has gradually changed. The criteria for action today must not only ensure sustainability but also meet appropriate ethical standards in diverse contexts. As a result, the topic of ethical behavior has been studied more extensively in recent studies. Accordingly, through bibliometric approaches, this study seeks to generalize the issues of ethical behavior explored in a variety of contexts from 1991 to 2022. A total of 1409 articles were found and extracted from the Web of Science using the keywords “ethical behavior” and “context”; they were then decoded using VOSviewer software (version 1.6). Three techniques, including bibliographic coupling, co-citation, and co-occurrence were conducted to identify the six most influential contexts in ethical behavior. The results demonstrate that the six most influential contexts in ethical behavior are consumption, leadership, business, organization, medical, and education. The results further revealed that leading countries such as the USA and UK have a larger number of studies on ethical behavior in many different contexts, such as organization, business, education, health, consumption, and politics. The Journal of Business Ethics leads the way in research into ethical behavior, followed by the Journal of Applied Psychology.

1. Introduction

Starting from the 1980s, a series of ethical issues increased the interest in this field of study among practitioners and researchers (Treviño et al. 2014). Indeed, as a testament to the growing interest among researchers, a number of literature reviews have emerged in recent years, including ethical decision making (Jones 1991) and ethical education in accounting (Armstrong et al. 2003). Moreover, interest in consumer ethics is not limited to those seeking to practice it or businesses seeking to attract or avoid the gaze of ethical consumers (Rodriguez-Rad and Ramos-Hidalgo 2018). There was already leadership research and theory focused on behavior before authors began to address ethical issues in charismatic and converting leadership research (Treviño et al. 2003). Recent legislation (for example, the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002) along with a renewed interest in business ethics have also created new room for the study of accounting ethics (Robertson 2008). These indicate that ethical behavior is a relevant topic in different contexts such as organization, economics, management, education, sociology, and psychology, so it is not surprising that issues related to ethical behavior have been explored from a number of disciplines using and applying definitions, methods, approaches, and theory of planned behavior (TPB) (Ajzen 1991). “Ethics” refers to different expressions, concerns, and problems across individuals, groups, and social-spatial contexts (Carrington et al. 2015; Chatzidakis et al. 2012).

The substantial growth of ethical behavior literature from various fields has increased human knowledge while limiting expertise to individual studies for a comprehensive review, synthesizing existing works to provide a general picture of the literature. As a result, some general assessments have been made while most are qualitative and subjective in nature. A small number of researchers apply biometric techniques to quantitatively and objectively review existing documents for capture or visualization. While some other researchers (e.g., Köseoglu et al. 2016) adopted a citation approach to simply reveal the performance of each article, author, and/or journal from the most positive and influential perspective, Vallaster et al. (2019) used co-occurrence of the keywords in an attempt to categorize clusters of a scientific basis, thus mapping the knowledge structure of the different levels of association between ethical behavior and contexts. However, two other methods, bibliographic coupling and co-citation, are omitted. These methods can give more complementarity to the functions of providing citation and co-citation (cf. Comoli et al. 2023). Moreover, they have the potential for the optimal mapping of the different sides of the research and thus generate underlying theories, which can be used to identify emerging fields, filter smaller fields, and categorize the conceptual structure of each group. Gamarra and Girotto (2022) provide a more in-depth research methodology approach, using co-occurrence of author and keyword and listing the most cited articles, most cited authors, related authors, and influential journals in the table, yet not using bibliographic analysis and co-citation using maps.

Different methods of bibliometric generation have their own strengths and weaknesses. Combining different methods with their complementary roles to create a comprehensive document map, thereby yielding better results and facilitating deeper understanding, has thus become a trend in the bibliographic landscape (Chang et al. 2015). In this study, the authors intend to fill the literature gap in ways that have not been fully explored to date, through the use and combination of three distinct bibliometric methods, i.e., co-citation, bibliographic coupling, and co-occurrence, in order to capture, connect, supplement bibliographic information, and rigorously and comprehensively explore the constantly changing ethical behavior in different scenarios.

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first paper to carry out a simultaneous bibliometric analysis of ethical behavior in many diverse and different contexts, which is expected to provide a complete picture of potentially relevant ethical behaviors in many fields. VOS Viewer software is used to visualize and analyze global trends and patterns in the Web of Science (WoS)-based scientific literature. Hence, the main objective of our research was to conduct a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of global research trends in ethical behavior across various contexts. This involved mapping networks, identifying influential works and authors, exploring theoretical frameworks, and forecasting future research directions. Accordingly, this research seeks to answer the following research questions (RQs):

RQ1: What are the key up-to-date works, and how do they form maps and networks in the field of ethical behavior across different contexts?

RQ2: How can ethical behavior be explored through theoretical reviews and co-citation analysis, and what are the top and most influential authors, publications, journals, and keywords in this field?

RQ3: What insights can bibliometric coupling analysis provide regarding future research trends and emerging issues in ethical behavior?

RQ4: How can a global view of ethical behavior and related contexts be synthesized to enhance current academic contributions and guide future research?

2. Literature Review

2.1. Ethical Behavior

The TPB is designed to predict and explain human behavior in specific contexts (Erokhin et al. 2024; Mohi Ud Din and Zhang 2023; Mouloudj et al. 2023; Njoku et al. 2024). A behavioral intention can manifest in behavior only if the behavior in question is under control in the particular context, despite the fact that some of the most productive behaviors depend to some extent on non-motivational factors such as the availability of needed opportunities and resources (Ajzen 1991; Mouloudj and Bouarar 2023). Collectively, these factors represent people’s actual ability to control behavior. The performance of a behavior is a combined function of perceived intention and behavioral control (Njoku et al. 2024). Intentions and perceptions of control should be assessed in relation to the specific behavior of interest, and the specific context should be similar to the context in which the behavior will occur (Erokhin et al. 2024; Mouloudj et al. 2023). Intervention events can produce changes in intention or perception of behavioral control (Ajzen 1991).

The term “ethics” is used interchangeably with “morals”. While this usage is acceptable, it would be more accurate to restrict the terms “moral” and “morality” to the behavior itself. The terms (ethics and ethical) refer to the study of ethics such as the conduct or the rule that follows (Tsalikis and Fritzsche 2013). Ethics is “inquiry into theories of what is good and evil and into what is right and wrong, and thus is inquiry into what we ought and ought not to do” (Beauchamp and Bowie 1983, p. 3). Similarly, ethical behavior refers to “’just’ or ‘right’ standards of behavior between parties in a situation” (Runes 1964). On the same hand, ethics is “the study of what constitutes good and bad human conduct, including related actions and values” (Barry 1979). According to Runes (1964), ethical behavior is considered to be the fair or proper standard of conduct between parties in a particular situation. Furthermore, ethical behavior is linked to social norms, moral values, and rules of conduct and is intertwined with culture (Daradkeh 2023). Rest (1986) proposed a four-component model for individual ethical decision making and behavior, whereby the ethical agent must recognize ethical issues, make ethical judgments, establish ethical intentions, and act on intent. According to Treviño (1986), an ethical dilemma then moves to the cognitive stage; moral judgments made in the cognitive stage are then moderated by situational and personal factors, resulting in ethical or unethical behavior.

Ferrell and Gresham (1985) noted that consensus on appropriate ethical behavior is likely to change as the matter changes. Hunt and Vitell (1986) added a remote assessment phase, during which the consequences of moral deterioration were assessed. Some researchers found that once an ethical judgment is made, it leads to ethical behavior through the establishment of moral intention (Hunt and Vitell 1986; Mouloudj and Bouarar 2023; Rest 1986), while others showed that ethical judgment leads directly to engaging in behavioral ethics (Ferrell and Gresham 1985; Treviño 1986). In the research by Jones (1991), according to an Issue-Contingent Model, there are three main definitions: firstly, ethical problems arise when one’s actions, performed freely, can benefit or harm others. Secondly, an ethical agent is someone who makes ethical decisions, even though he or she may not realize that ethical issues are at stake. Thirdly, based on Kelman and Hamilton (1989), an ethical decision is one that is legally and ethically accepted by the wider community. Conversely, an unethical decision is illegal or morally unacceptable to the larger community. Kohlberg (1976) distinguished between three levels of moral development: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Individuals at the level of common moral judgment make moral decisions based on immediate personal consequences. The key feature of this level is that people adhere to and respond to established rules of conduct and consequences. At the usual level, subjects have developed the ability to see themselves in relation to others. Ethical decisions are based on a desire to be liked by people or on compliance with social norms or regulations. At the post-conventional level, people can distinguish themselves from expectations and rules; they examine and define values and ethical principles autonomously. Therefore, the factors that influence the actual performance of one’s moral decisions are based on the ethical reasoning process.

2.2. Bibliometric

According to Potter (1981), bibliometric is a “method of studying and measuring publication patterns of all forms of connection by writing and their authors”. For Machlup and Mansfield (1983), it is the statistical study of the development and distribution of the literature. ALA (1983) argued that the use of statistical methods in analyzing document content to reveal historical developments of subject areas and patterns of authoring, publication, and use is called bibliometric analysis. According to Broadus (1987), the term “bibliometric” is defined as “a field of study of information science and library that analyzes bibliometric data, such as year of publication, author, country of origin, among others, using the quantitative approach”. Bibliometric is an approach to evaluate and monitor the development of a research topic by organizing and linking background information of publications, such as citations, authors, co-authors, journals, and keywords (Ferreira et al. 2018; Köseoglu et al. 2016). Bibliometric allows researchers to analyze the literature of research topics to explore conceptual structure and developments in research topics (Leung et al. 2017).

Bibliometric analysis includes different methods—for example, co-citation analysis and co-word analysis. Both bibliographic coupling and co-citation use citation analysis to establish similarities between publications. The bibliographic strength of two measured publications is defined as the number of entries that these two publications have in common in their reference lists. Combining different techniques in bibliometric analysis provides greater insight into research topics (Chang et al. 2015). The analysis provides an understanding of the general picture of the structure and development of research topics and suggests future directions of the research topic (Leung et al. 2017).

Co-citation analysis is a technology that allows quantification of relationships and connections between documents (Leung et al. 2017). Co-citation analysis determines how often two documents are cited by a third document. Two documents can have something in common if they are cited simultaneously for free (Benckendorff and Zehrer 2013). Co-citation is a measure of the relative relationship between two publications through citations. Thus, research topics can be explored to provide additional insight into the structure of academic literature (Leung et al. 2017).

Co-occurence analysis is a technique for counting and analyzing keyword occurrences in publications on the subject of research (De la Hoz-Correa et al. 2018). The more keywords that appear together, the greater the power between them. Synonym analysis explores the interactions between keywords in the research topic (Su and Lee 2010). In addition, co-occurrence analysis is also used to look at trends or developments of research topics and quotes (Beciu et al. 2024; Leung et al. 2017). Bibliographic coupling analysis is a measure of the bibliographic coupling strength of two publications, defined as the number of entries the two publications have in common in their reference lists.

3. Methodology

This study employs all three techniques mentioned (i.e., bibliographic analysis, co-citations, and bibliographic coupling) to offer varied perspectives, allowing readers to interpret the results based on their individual preferences and priorities. The rationale behind this approach is the absence of a universally accepted method for accurately evaluating a set of documents. This methodology was inspired by the approach used in “Openness and information technology: a bibliometric analysis of literature production” (Vošner et al. 2017). We used VOSviewer software to create, visualize, and explore bibliometric maps of science (Allam et al. 2022; Beciu et al. 2024; Van Eck and Waltman 2010). These maps help visualize the structure of the theoretical basis of the research topic. The size of each bubble represents the number of citations received by the articles, while the thickness of the lines indicates the strength of the citation relationships. The connections and distances between publications demonstrate the strength of their relationships, and the color of the bubble signifies the cluster to which the document belongs.

We selected articles from a broad range of disciplines, including consumption, leadership, business, organization, medical, and educational sciences, to ensure a comprehensive understanding of ethical behavior across various contexts. This broad scope aligns with the aim of our work to provide a global view of ethical behavior and its considerations in different fields. To obtain valuable bibliometric data, selecting the most suitable search engine is crucial (Allam et al. 2022). Consequently, for our data collection and research methodology, we utilized the keywords “ethical behavior” and “context” while searching on Web of Science (WoS). WoS is a leading database encompassing top journals from fields such as basic sciences, social sciences, and the arts and humanities, featuring over 22,000 journals and 50 million publications in 70 languages across 151 research categories. The scope of this study was limited to publications up to 27 April 2022. The initial search yielded 1540 publications. Of these, 131 were excluded due to being duplicates or unrelated to the study. Consequently, 1409 publications were included in the final analysis, representing contributions from 90 countries, 854 journals, 1734 institutions, and 3913 authors. The articles were filtered based on the themes “ethical behavior” and “context”, highlighting ethical behaviors in various contexts. Figure 1 shows the annual trend in the number of publications from 1991 to April 2022. The number of publications on ethical behavior in different contexts has surged since 2011, with an average annual publication count of 44. Additionally, citation reports for these 1409 publications, starting from 1991, revealed a total of 23,261 citations, with an annual average of 726.9. The increasing number of citations each year reflects growing interest in the study of ethical behavior within different contexts.

Bibliometric analysis techniques for some research subjects are presented in

Table 1. Objectives and methods.

Objectives	Method
Country	Bibliographic coupling
Keyword	Co-occurrence
Publication	Bibliographic coupling and Co-citation
Journal	Bibliographic coupling and Co-citation
Author	Bibliographic coupling and Co-citation

.

4. Results

4.1. Countries and Their Concerns about Ethical Behavior

With the minimum number of publications and citations at 15 and 0, respectively, there are 20 countries/regions published in the journal. The results show that the USA is the country that is most concerned with ethical behavior and is far ahead of the following countries (with nearly eight times as many research articles as England) (Figure 2).

The mapping analysis of bibliographic coupling of countries (Figure 3) shows that the USA is an influential country that contributes to ethical behavior within context and with other countries that are similar to the USA. The figure illustrates the frequency of coupling between countries; the USA is fixed and put in the center of the map. When a publication is cited by a work that is produced outside the USA, it is also likely to be cited by someone in the USA. Although the direction of influence from this result cannot be concluded, it does suggest that publications produced in the USA act as links to publications produced outside of it (Mas-Tur et al. 2021). As such, the USA has had a great influence on the trend of articles with ethical behavior and context topics. Today, in the USA, health researchers, policymakers, and the public have emphasized the importance of geospatial ethics and privacy issues during the COVID-19 pandemic (Kim and Kwan 2021).

There are four groups based on the global network of coupling. Different colors show different clusters that are linked more often to each other. This means that studies originating in countries within the same cluster cite each other more (Zandi et al. 2020). Cluster 1, in red, includes eight countries, in which the top three countries with the highest number of studies are England (83), Germany (74), and France (52). These studies focus mainly on ethical behavior in leadership and political context, ethical consumption, and ethical behavior in public organizations. Cluster 2, in green, includes eight countries, in which the top three countries with the highest number of studies are USA (656), Canada (78), and China (75). These countries mainly research on the contexts of ethical behavior in business, work ethics, and entrepreneurial ethics. Cluster 3, in blue, includes three countries: Spain (50), Russia (38), and Pakistan (15). These countries mainly study ethical behavior in business and organizational ethics. Cluster 4, in yellow, includes only Korea, whose concern is about ethical behavior in the medical context. The absence of countries in Africa suggests that future research should focus on countries on the continent where ethical awareness needs to be enhanced.

4.2. Key Themes in Research Terms

Keywords are very helpful in explaining the scope of the research and the main themes of each study. Co-occurrence analysis was used to identify the top keywords used by the authors in the research. The minimum number of occurrences of keywords is five (5) times. Out of the initial 6608 keywords, 422 met the above conditions; the analysis showed the occurrence of different keyword phrases based on the concept of co-occurrence in articles. Keywords are visualized as a keyword cloud (Word Cloud) (Figure 4). The font size represents the number of occurrences of that keyword. The most commonly used author keywords can be seen as ethics and behavior, with 266 and 166 occurrences, respectively. These are followed by keywords such as ethical decision making, decision making, attitudes, ethical leadership, business ethics, performance, and perceptions, etc.

VOS viewer software provides three different mapping visualizations: network visualization, overlay visualization, and density visualization (Van Eck and Waltman 2010). Each keyword corresponds to a colored circle. The size of the circles and letters is positively correlated with the occurrence of keywords in the title and summary.

In Network Visualization (Figure 5), 422 keywords are divided into eight different clusters with their own colors.

Table 2. Keyword analysis.

Cluster (Number of Keywords)	The Theme of Research about Ethical Behavior in the Context	Context	Keywords
1 (146)	Concerns about health problems	Medical	Care; health; depression; cancer; medicine; stress; quality-of-life; risk; burnout; children; COVID-19; vulnerability; care; human-rights; psychology, life, family; HIV; suicide; bioethics; health-care; nurse
2 (75)	Management work of leaders	Leadership	Performance; ethical leadership; model; ethical decision-making; job-satisfaction; ethical climate; employee voice; work; transformational leadership; abusive supervision
3 (54)	Consumer behavior toward products of a socially responsible firm	Consumption	Corporate social-responsibility; corporate social responsibility; planned behavior; consumers; intentions; consumption; green; consumer behavior; product; welfare; welfare animal; responsibility; sustainability
4 (51)	Understand the process of making an ethical decision	Ethical decisionmaking	Ethics; judgment; decision making; power; empathy; morality; emotion; dilemmas; psychologists, dynamics, intuition, negotiation, willingness
5 (37)	Student’s behavior in education	Academic	Education; students; organization; managers; depletion; misconduct; integrity; cheating; academic dishonesty; unethical behavior
6 (30)	Activities in corporate (business, management)	Corporate	Behavior; business ethics; codes; management; entrepreneurship; work climate; financial performance; human resource management; stakeholder theory
7 (23)	The concept of factors mentioned when marketing	Marketing	Marketing ethics; consumer ethics; religiosity; collectivism; decision-making; idealism; social responsibility; culture; strategy
8 (6)	Spirituality and virtue affect ethical behavior in Indian firms	Spiritual	Firms; India; philosophy; spirituality; virtue; workplace spirituality

is a summary of eight clusters along with typical keywords of the clusters, the main topics in the study of ethical behavior in context, and the specific contexts of each cluster.

From this summary, the use of keywords to analyze concerns related to ethical behavior in current research is developed across contexts, including health, leadership, consumption, ethical decision making, education, business, marketing, and spirituality. The medical industry is the most studied, from health issues to common medical and ethical diseases, to human rights. Since ethical behavior has always been the most sensitive and highly concerned topic in this field, this conclusion is consistent with reality. Next is the leadership perspective, which is the second most common area of concern. Performance, ethical leadership, job satisfaction, employee voice, and rigorous supervision are among the ethical issues to be discussed. The keywords used allude to consumer behavior; consumer and ethical decision making can be grouped together. As can be seen, ethical consumer behavior is as influential and important as the medical field. Other ethical contexts such as education, corporate operations, and marketing activities open up potential future research directions because these are relatively new contexts and have not been studied by many authors. Finally, the spiritual environment is remarkable because it has received little research interest because of its sensitive nature.

4.3. Bibliographic Coupling Analysis

Publications bibliographic coupling with the analysis of documents is illustrated by the network visualization shown in the figure below. We selected research articles with at least zero citations for analysis, not only serving the purpose of generalizing previously influential research trends, but also discovering new trends, not yet recognized by many researchers in recent years. According to VOS viewer software, the research papers are divided into eight clusters and are represented by different colors as shown in Figure 6 below.

The five studies (Treviño et al. 2014; Goebel and Weißenberger 2017; Hirth-Goebel and Weißenberger 2019; Martin et al. 2014; Sumanth and Hannah 2014) with the highest total association strength are shown in Figure 7.

The article with the largest total coupling strength of 1572 in the analysis of coupling publications among the 999 sample articles is the one on the topic of (un)ethical behavior in organizations by Treviño et al. (2014). It can be considered as an overview article about (un)ethical behavior in the organization. Martin et al. (2014) conducted a study of ethical behavior in a different light fromthat of the past. Specifically, the article researches ethical infrastructures and moral disengagement in organizations, with a total link strength of 1530. Thoroughly analyzing each form of behavior, Goebel and Weißenberger (2017) mentioned relevant factors such as informal controls, ethical work climates, and organizational performance, with total link strength of 1557. Following that, Hirth-Goebel and Weißenberger (2019) learned about the ethical decision-making behavior of professional management accountants and ethical environments, with articles with total link strength of 1539. Differently from the four articles mentioned above, Sumanth and Hannah (2014) researched ethical leadership and authentic leadership based on factors contextual antennas; the article has total link strength of 1273 and is in the top five out of 999 articles.

Of the five research papers with the largest number of association strengths, four articles have the main topic of (un)ethical behavior in the organization, which is a topic of great interest and mentioned first by many researchers around the world, followed by the topic of ethical leadership. The systematic research on ethical behavior in organizations/(un)ethical behavior in organizations, also known as behavioral ethics in organizations or organizational ethics (Treviño et al. 2006), began to take shape in the 1980s. This field attracts a large number of scholars and researchers (e.g., Treviño et al. 2014).

The bibliographic network presented in Figure 6 has been divided into eight clusters as represented in

Table 3. Bibliographic coupling cluster and representative publications for each cluster.

Cluster	Representative Publications
Cluster 1 (435 publications) Medical Context	Val-Laillet et al. (2015); Chatters (2000); Kelly et al. (2013); Duggan et al. (2006); Condon (2019); Baur et al. (2017); Cheung and Pierre (2015); Engelen (2019); Fan et al. (2019)
Cluster 2 (131 Publications) Ethical Behavior in Consumption	Chen et al. (2019); Liu et al. (2020); Sánchez-González et al. (2020); Kautish et al. (2019); Petrovskaya and Haleem (2021)
Cluster 3 (129 Publications) Moral Development, Ethical Perception, Moral Judgment, and Ethical Decision Making	Barnett and Vaicys (2000); Ahmed et al. (2003); Haines and Leonard (2007); Huang et al. (2014)
Cluster 4 (119 Publications) Ethical Behavior in Leadership	Resick et al. (2011); Kacmar et al. (2011); Moore et al. (2019); Bhatti et al. (2021); Bai et al. (2019); Grobler and Grobler (2021); Keck et al. (2020); Kerse (2021); Zhang et al. (2020)
Cluster 5 (78 Publications) Ethical Behavior in Business: Corporate Social Responsibility	Snider et al. (2003); Chabowski et al. (2011); Beaudoin et al. (2019); Tafolli and Grabner-Kräuter (2020); Camilleri (2021)
Cluster 6 (64 Publications) (Un)Ethical Behavior in Organizational Context	Treviño et al. (2014); Ashforth et al. (2008); May et al. (2015); Harvey et al. (2017); Martin et al. (2014); Mitchell et al. (2020); Dasborough et al. (2020); Johnson et al. (2018)
Cluster 7 (27 Publications) (Un)Ethical Behavior in Educational Context	Bing et al. (2012); Harding et al. (2007); Mihelič and Culiberg (2014); Nga and Lum (2013); Dufresne (2004)
Cluster 8 (16 Publications) Ethical Climate in Organizational Context	Arnaud and Schminke (2012); Friend et al. (2020); Soltani (2014); Treviño and Weaver (2001); Shapira-Lishchinsky and Rosenblatt (2010); Vardaman et al. (2014); Ülkü and Döven (2021)

.

4.3.1. Journals

Rey-Martí et al. (2016) argued that research journals are absolutely necessary when conducting literature reviews. Furthermore, targeting related journals also helps people with an interest in the topic to reduce their search time and focus more on familiar high-ranking journals. To discover which journals these publications belong to, the journals must have at least four publications and 16 citations analyzed. The final sample consisted of 33 journals (Figure 8) out of a total of 854 sources. As can be seen from the list below, the Journal of Business Ethics accounts for 46.12% (143 documents) of the source articles alone, followed by the Journal of Nursing Ethics (24 documents), then Ethics and Behavior (17 documents). These are leading research journals from many countries with a high number of publications and high reliability.

Figure 9 shows the bibliographic coupling mapping of the journals. The journals are grouped into seven clusters. The first cluster contains 16 journals, including leading journals such as the Journal of Business Ethics, the Journal of Business, and the Journal of Consumer Marketing. The second and third clusters contain five journals. Ethics and Behavior is among the top journals in cluster 2. The top journals in cluster 3 include the Journal of Applied Psychology, Personal Review, and Leadership and Organization Development. There are three journals in the fourth cluster and two journals in the fifth cluster. Only one journal was found in clusters 6 and 7. The results showed the strong influence of the Journal of Business Ethics.

In addition, the research team analyzed the impact of the journals to test the certainty of the results and their influence on theoretical knowledge regarding ethical behavior in contexts.

Table 4. Bibliography coupling quartile and SJR 2021 of Journal.

Journal	Country	Publications	SJR 2021	Quartile
Journal of Business Ethics (1982)	Netherlands	143	2.44	Q1
Journal of Applied Psychology (1917)	UK	24	6.45	Q1
Ethics and Behavior (1991)	USA	17	0.44	Q2
Sustainability (2009)	Switzerland	17	0.66	Q1
Science and Engineering Ethics (1995)	Netherlands	15	1.07	Q1
Frontiers in Psychology (2010)	Switzerland	10	0.87	Q1
Academic Medicine (1964)	USA	10	1.66	Q1
Business Ethics Quarterly (1996)	UK	9	1.54	Q1
Journal of Business Research (1973)	USA	9	2.32	Q1
Personnel Review (1971)	UK	5	0.89	Q2
Business Ethics (1992)	UK	5	0.93	Q1

shows the relevance of the sources using their impact coefficients and their portfolio ranking positions.

4.3.2. Authors

Figure 10 shows the authors with the most publications. The results show that 3830 authors are responsible for 1409 articles included in the sample. This study narrowed down the number of authors to those having at least two documents and at least 50 author citations, leaving only 47 authors. The top three authors are Sean T. Hannah (Wake Forest University Business School), Bruce J. Avolio (School of Business at the University of Washington), and Linda K. Treviño (Pennsylvania State University).

The network to complement the authors’ bibliography is shown in Figure 11. The authors’ bibliography forms six clusters. There is a primary author group with a high bibliographic index of 16 authors (red group). The remaining clusters have from three to nine authors.

The bibliographic coupling of authors cluster and representative authors for each cluster are presented in Appendix A,

Table A1. Bibliographic coupling authors cluster and representative authors for each cluster.

Cluster	Author	Base	Concept
Cluster 1: Ethical Behavior in Organization and Business	Andreas Chatzidakis	Royal Holloway University	Ethical consumption
	John Peloza	Kentucky University	Responsibility
	Sean Valentine	Louisiana Tech University	Ethical business, human management, and behavior in an organization
	Linda Treviño	Pennsylvania State University	Behavior in organizations and ethics, behavior in organizations and ethical business
	Gary R. Weaver	Delaware University	Moral awareness, ethical behavior in organizations
Cluster 2: Ethical Behavior in Leadership	Bruce Avolio	Washington University	Ethical communication of leadership, strategic leadership from individual to global
	Deanne N. Den Hartog	Amsterdam University	Leadership behavior in the organization, dynamic, international management
	Jennifer J. Kish-Gephart	Massachusetts—Amherst University	Behavioral ethics, diversity, social inequality, behavior, business ethics
	Fred O. Walumbwa	Arizona State University’s W.P.	Authentic leadership
Cluster 3: Nervous, Deep Brain Stimulation, and Depression	Laura B. Dunn	Stanford University	Scientific and ethical issues related to deep brain stimulation for mood, behavioral, and thought disorders, ethics of schizophrenia, treatment of depression
	Benjamin D. Greenberg	Brown University	Psychiatry, neuroscience, anxiety-related features, deep brain stimulation, treatment-resistant depression
	Joseph J. Fin	Rockefeller University, Weill Cornell Medical College	Consciousness disorders, deep brain stimulation, neurotechnology, neuroethics
	Thomas E. Schlaepfer	The Johns Hopkins University	Deep brain stimulation, depression, anxiety, neurobiology
Cluster 4: Ethical Culture	Marcus Dickson Wayne	State University	Underlying leadership theories generalizing culture and multiculturalism, the influence of culture on leadership and organizations
	Mary A. Keating	Trinity College Dublin	Multicultural management, ethics, human resource management
	Gillian S. Martin	College Dublin	Leadership culture change
	Christian Resick	Drexel University	Teamwork, personality, organizational culture and conformity, ethical leadership, and ethical-related organizational environment
Cluster 5: Moral Psychology	Michael C. Gottieb and Mitchell M. Handelsman	The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center & University of Kansas	The Ethical Dilemma in Psychotherapy, Ethical Psychologist Training: A Self-Awareness Question for Effective Psychotherapists: Helping Good Psychotherapists Become Even Better, APA Handbook of Ethics in Psychology
	Samuel L. Knapp	Dartmouth College	Physiological sustainability
Cluster 6: Ethical issues in health care, especially concerned with the knowledge of nurses	Jang, In-sun	Sungshin Women’s University	Ethical decision-making model for nurses, nursing students, telehealth technology, research topics on family care between Korea and other countries
	Park, Eun-jun	Sejong University	Nursing students, beliefs in knowledge and health, Korean nursing students, nurses’ organizational culture, health-related behavior

.

Most of the authors are at universities in the USA, for example Sean T. Hannah, Linda K. Treviño, and Gary R. Weaver (University of Delaware). There are a number of authors in other countries, for example Mary A. Keating Trinity (University College Dublin, Ireland), Thomas E. (Johns Hopkins University, China), and Deanne N. Den Hartog (University of Amsterdam, Netherlands).

Clusters 5 and 6 are quite distant from other clusters, which proves to be an emerging point in ethical behavior research in contexts; these include Samuel Knapp from Germany and Park Eun-jun, Park Seungmi, and Jang In-sun from Korea. Although the USA is the leading country concerned with ethics, recently authors from some other countries, such as Germany, Korea, Netherlands, China, and Ireland, have become equally interested.

Some of the more ethical issues that are mentioned in addition to the clusters in the co-citation are: neuroethics, psychology, ethical issues with brain stimulation, depressive syndromes, and ethics in the medical industry and health care.

4.4. Co-Citation Analysis

4.4.1. Publications

In order to select the most influential studies, a cut-off point should be established (McCain 1990). Therefore, to narrow down the 19,618 citations from the 1409 original studies, the team chose a threshold at which the minimum number of citations of a reference was at least 15. The final sample consists of 100 research papers. Figure 12 shows that the most cited studies are: Jones (1991); Brown et al. (2005); Treviño (1986); Podsakoff et al. (2003); Treviño et al. (2006); and Ajzen (1991).

The top five citations in the sample were 100 analytical papers themed around the history of ethical behavior in leadership and the context of decision making in organizations. Specifically, in the paper with the most citations (99 citations), Jones (1991) analyzed more deeply the characteristics of the moral issue itself, the moral intensity, and then proposed a model using concepts, theories, and evidence mainly derived from social psychology. The author then argued that the intensity of ethics affects every component of decision making and ethical behavior in an organization. The second most cited paper (96 citations) was by Brown et al. (2005) on ethics in leadership. The study proposed social learning theory as a theoretical basis for understanding ethical leadership and provided a constitutive definition of ethical leadership structure. Specifically, ethical leadership involves deliberate behavior, honesty, trust in the leader, and fairness in all interactions. The paper by Treviño (1986) has the third highest number of citations (91 citations). It researched ethical decision making in organizations, but in a different direction, which is to propose a model that combines individual variables (such as ethical development) with situational variables to explain and predict the ethical decision-making behavior of individuals in the organization. A key component of the model is based on Kohlberg’s model of cognitive ethics development, which provides a constructive definition, measurement tools, and a theoretical basis to guide research in business ethics. Five empirically derived aspects of the ethical environment are described as law and code, caring, instrumentalism, independence, and rules. In addition, the theory of ethical environment is developed from economic and organizational theory to describe the determinants of the ethical environment in organizations. In particular, the socio-cultural environment, organizational form, and the specific history of the organization were identified as determinants of the ethical environment in the organization.

The co-citation network is shown in Figure 13. The co-citation network is divided into four clusters. The clusters and representative papers (which are highly cited papers in the cluster) are presented in

Table 5. Co-citation cluster and representative publications for each cluster.

Cluster	Representative Research
Cluster 1 (37 publications) Ethical Decision Making	Ajzen (1991); Ferrell and Gresham (1985); Fornell and Larcker (1981); Fornell and Larcker (1981); Hunt and Vitell (1986); Jones (1991); Rest (1986); Treviño (1986); Fishbein and Ajzen (1977)
Cluster 2 (34 publications) Ethical Leadership	Brown et al. (2005); Brown and Treviño (2006); Mayer et al. (2009); Treviño et al. (2003); Treviño et al. (2000); Piccolo et al. (2010); Brown and Mitchell (2010); Bedi et al. (2016); De Hoogh and Den Hartog (2008)
Cluster 3 (23 publications) Ethical Judgment, Moral Development, and Ethical Behavior in an Organization	Aquino and Reed (2002); Bandura (1999); Greene et al. (2001); Haidt (2001); Mazar et al. (2008); Treviño and Youngblood (1990); Treviño et al. (2006); Tenbrunsel and Smith-Crowe (2008)
Cluster 4 (6 publications) Ethical Climate	Victor and Cullen (1988); Treviño et al. (1998); Schwepker (2001)

. The clusters are named according to the majority of the papers in the cluster. The first cluster mainly develops the theory of the ethical decision-making behavior of individuals in the organizational context. The second cluster deals with the topic of ethical leadership as well as the theories and models that underlie the theory building on this topic. The third cluster deals with ethical judgment, ethical development, and ethical behavior in the organization: some of the factors that drive (un)ethical behavior in an organization. The fourth cluster mainly consists of research papers on the topic of the ethical environment of the organization and some ethical environmental theories.

4.4.2. Journals

A total of 31 journals analyzed with at least 120 citations are presented in the co-citation network map. Figure 14 shows the journals that have the most influence on ethical behavior in the context. Leading journals for co-citation analysis showing influential journals for the development of ethical behavior in the context include Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Applied Psychology, Academy of Management Review, Academy of Management Journal, and Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. At this level, the data are quite diverse with journals from different regions linked together.

Figure 15 shows four groups of journals formed and arranged by color. The Academic Medicine Journal, American Psychologist Journal, and Annual Review of Psychology are among the most popular in the first group. Other clusters include journals on more general topics, such as management (e.g., Academy of Management Journal), marketing (e.g., European Journal of Marketing), and organizational behavior (e.g., Journal of Organizational Behavior). In addition, the research team analyzed the impact indices of the journals to test the certainty of the results and their influence on theoretical knowledge regarding ethical behavior in contexts.

Table 6. Co-citation Quartile and SJR 2021 of Journal.

Journal	Country	Citation	SJR 2021	Quartile
Journal of Business Ethics (1982)	Netherlands	4775	2.44	Q1
Journal of Applied Psychology (1917)	USA	1326	6.45	Q1
Academy of Management Review (1978)	USA	1006	7.62	Q1
Academy of Management Journal (1975)	USA	908	10.87	Q1
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1965)	USA	895	3.7	Q1
Leadership Quarterly (1990)	USA	639	4.91	Q1
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes (1985)	USA	577	2.83	Q1
Journal of Business Research (1973)	USA	538	2.32	Q1
Journal of Management (1975)	USA	525	2.12	Q1
Journal of Marketing (1969)	USA	522	7.46	Q1
Science (1880)	USA	375	14.59	Q1
Business Ethics (1992)	UK	358	0.93	Q1

shows the relevance of the sources using their impact coefficients and their portfolio ranking positions.

When comparing these results with those from bibliometric coupling, it is clear that the Journal of Business Ethics leads the way in research into ethical behavior in the context. The disappearance of the Academy of Management Review and the Academy of Management Journal in the list of leading bibliometric coupling journals is considered obvious with the emergence of professional journals such as Nursing Ethics, Ethics and Behavior, and Science and Engineering Ethics. Most of the articles in the journals are from the UK and the USA, which shows the interest of these two countries in studying ethical behavior in different contexts.

4.4.3. Authors

In terms of author analysis, authors with at least 47 citations are shown in Figure 16. The authors with the highest number of citations are Linda K. Treviño (Pennsylvania State University, USA), Albert Bandura (Stanford University, USA), Michael E. Brown (California Institute of Technology, USA), Shelby D. Hunt (Texas Tech University, USA), and Scott J. Vitell (University of Mississippi, USA). Several authors such as Treviño, Valentine, and Mayer have appeared in both bibliographic and co-citation analysis. This shows the continued impact and high ratings of these authors. The co-citation network of the authors is shown in Figure 17.

Authors’ co-citation cluster and representative authors for each cluster are presented in

Table A2. Co-citation authors’ cluster and representative authors for each cluster.

Cluster	Representative Author	Base	Concept
Cluster 1: Psychology, TPB, theory of the stages of moral development, the development of behavior in the context of makeup	Icek Ajzen	Massachusetts Amherst University	TPB
	Shelby D. Hunt	Texas Technology University	Marketing research
	O.C. Ferrell	Auburn University	Ethical marketing, social responsibility
	Scott J. Vitell	Mississippi University	Business administration, social psychology, marketing, management
	Lawrence Kohlberg		Theory of the stages of moral development
	AnusornSinghapakdi	Old Dominion University, Mississippi University	Marketing with subfields in consumer behavior and econometrics
Cluster 2: Social cognitive theory, ethical behavior in leadership	Albert Bandura	Stanford University	Behaviorism and cognitive psychology, social learning theory originator, theoretical structure of self-efficacy
	Michael E. Brown	Sam and Irene Black School of Business Penn State-Erie, The Behrend College	Behavioral leadership, ethics, ethical leadership, moral conflict
	David M. Mayer	Michigan University	Behavioral ethics, leadership ethics, organizational behavior
	Philip Podsakoff	Florida University	Citizen organization, behavioral organization, research methods leadership
Cluster 3: Psychological, emotional, and unethical behavior	Francesca Gino	Harvard Business School	Unethical, dishonest behavior
	Jonathan Haidt	NYU-Stern	Ethical psychology, political psychology, positive psychology, business ethics
	Ann E. Tenbrunsel	Notre Dame University	Psychology of ethical decision making and the ethical infrastructure in organizations, examining why employees, leaders, and students behave unethically, despite of their best intention
	Karl Aquino	British Columbia University	Ethics, forgiveness, victims, emotions.
Cluster 4: Ethical behavior in business and organization	Theresa Jones		Ecological light pollution, chemical communication, immune function, history features, mating
	Linda Treviño	Pennsylvania State University	Organizational behavior and business ethics
	Gary R. Weaver	Delaware University	Behavioral ethics in organizations
	Bart Victor	Vanderbilt University	The organizational basis of an ethical work environment

.

5. Discussion

The study evaluated comparisons of clusters produced by bibliographic coupling analysis and co-citation analysis to find research contexts on ethical behavior. Similarity in content across publications was revealed by the research; only the exceptional scenarios outlined below are exposed by this approach (see

Table 7. Bibliographic coupling analysis.

A. Bibliographic Coupling Analysis	B. Co-Citation Analysis	C. Key Context
Cluster 2 (131 Publications) Ethical Behavior in Consumption	Cluster 1 (37 publications) Ethical Decision Making	Consumption
Cluster 4 (119 Publications) Ethical Behavior in Leadership	Cluster 2 (34 publications) Ethical Leadership	Leadership
Cluster 3 (129 Publications) Moral Development, Ethical Perception, Moral Judgment, and Ethical Decision Making	Cluster 3 (23 publications) Ethical Judgment, Moral Development, and Ethical Behavior in Organizations	Business
Cluster 5 (78 Publications) Ethical Behavior in Business: Corporate Social Responsibility
Cluster 6 (64 Publications) (Un)Ethical Behavior in Organizational Contexts	Cluster 4 (6 publications) Ethical Climate	Organization
Cluster 8 (16 Publications) Ethical Climate in Organizational Contexts
Cluster 1 (435 publications) Medical Contexts		Medical
Cluster 7 (27 Publications) (Un)Ethical Behavior in Educational Contexts		Education

).

5.1. Ethical Behavior in Consumption

Ethical behavior in consumption, also known as ethical consumption, involves consumer decision making influenced by ethical concerns about the products or services they choose to purchase. Ethical consumer behavior has also been defined as “the consumption behavior of customers who follow moral principles when they acquire and dispose of goods and services” (Rasool et al. 2020, p. 3). Cooper-Martin and Holbrook (1993) define it as consumer behavior driven by ethical considerations, while Roberts (1993, p. 140) describes a socially responsible consumer as someone “who purchases products and services perceived to have a positive (or less negative) influence on the environment or who patronizes businesses that attempt to effect related positive social change”. This includes patronizing businesses that drive social change and improve ethical practices. According to Starr (2009), ethical consumption encompasses not only the utility of the product but also the moral implications and consequences of consumption behavior.

Hassan et al. (2016) highlight that existing research employs various theories to understand how consumers develop ethical intentions. Similarly, Uusitalo and Oksanen (2004) explore ethical and moral aspects related to child labor, animal testing, and labor rights in the production and distribution of goods. Hong and Song (2008) refer to it as socially responsible consumption behavior aligned with moral beliefs, while Hong and Shin (2010) view ethical consumption as an act of benevolence and concern for oneself, others, society, and the environment.

Kang and Namkung (2018) observed that although there has been a growing interest in marketing ethics and social responsibility lately, research on “ethical consumerism or ethical consciousness” within the hospitality industry remains limited. Past studies have approached ethical consumption from various angles (see

Table 8. Key concepts used in ethical consumption behavior research.

Main Concept	Explanation	Authors
Altruistic consumption	Customers choose forms of consumption that are not environmentally friendly	Smith and Paladino (2010); Yadav (2016)
Exchanging behavior	Using the ethical values of the exchange product	Husser et al. (2019); Van Quaquebeke et al. (2019)
Fair trade (FT) practice	These include (1) willingness to pay more, (2) guidance by universalism, benevolence, self-direction and stimulation, (3) self-identity, (4) emphasis on brand fair trade in products, and (5) cultural influences	Gram-Hanssen (2021); Gregory-Smith et al. (2017)
Frugal consumption	Customers are less interested in shopping, more physical repair and product reuse, longer product life	Gregory-Smith et al. (2017); Gatersleben et al. (2019)
Green consumption	Customers drive communities and practices at the national level, which forces manufacturers to adhere to environmentally friendly products	Stern et al. (1995); Gregory-Smith et al. (2017)
Socially conscious consumption behavior	Consider equity between environmental issues (e.g., use of used products), health (e.g., building low-waste communities) and social issues (e.g., donate unused products)	Pepper et al. (2009); Romani et al. (2016)
Socially responsible consumption behavior	These include buying behavior (e.g., buying used products), non-buying behavior (e.g., discouraging purchasing products using raw materials), and post-purchase behavior (e.g., sell fully functional used products at lower market prices)	Johnson and Chattaraman (2019); Kang and Namkung (2018)
Spiritual and moral consumption	Consumer spiritual practices promote ethical consumption	Orellano et al. (2020); Vitell et al. (2016)

). Harrison et al. (2005) identified five key aspects of ethical consumption: (1) boycotting products from unethical companies; (2) promoting ethical products and companies; (3) purchasing products that adhere to ethical standards; (4) engaging with manufacturers and sellers knowledgeable about ethics; and (5) avoiding unsustainable products in favor of sustainable consumption. Clark and Unterberger (2007) focused on sustainable practices, fair trade, boycotting, selective purchasing, and local products. Hong and Song (2008) divided ethical consumption into categories such as ethical resource allocation, environmental behavior, ethical energy use, recycling, waste management, and voluntary reduction of consumption. More recently, Arman and Mark-Herbert (2022) utilized theories of ethical consumption behavior to illustrate how consumers integrate their personal moral values into their purchasing decisions. Ethical consumer behavior aligns with the concepts outlined in Table 8 (Arman and Mark-Herbert 2022).

In this context, future research could explore: (1) the influence of online reviews, ratings, and social media on consumer perceptions of ethical practices and how digital platforms can either facilitate or obstruct ethical consumption; (2) the impact of corporate transparency about supply chains, labor practices, and environmental impact on consumer trust and purchasing decisions; (3) the role of AI technologies, such as personalized recommendations and targeted advertising, in shaping ethical consumption behaviors; (4) the integration of ethical considerations into purchasing decisions within emerging economies, and the challenges involved in fostering ethical consumption in these contexts; (5) the effectiveness of CSR initiatives in altering consumer perceptions and promoting ethical purchasing; (6) the application of behavioral economics principles, such as framing and nudges, to enhance ethical consumer choices; (7) the effect of increased awareness and knowledge about ethical issues on consumer behavior, and the success of educational campaigns in encouraging ethical purchasing; and (8) the impact of globalization on ethical consumption practices, particularly in relation to multinational corporations navigating diverse cultural and regulatory environments.

5.2. Ethical Behavior in Leadership

Ethical leadership has been described in many different ways. Theo holds that ethical leaders engage in activities and behaviors that benefit others, while refraining from behaviors that might cause any harm to others (Kanungo 2001). Brown et al. (2005) believe that a combination of integrity, ethical standards, and fair treatment of employees are the cornerstones of ethical leadership. Treviño and Brown (2004) propose that ethical leadership, in its own right, promotes ethical behavior by practicing good ethical management and holding people accountable for their own behavior. Furthermore, Aslam et al. (2024) argue that ethical leadership enhances trust and stimulates innovative behavior. In addition, ethical leadership behavior overlaps to some extent with relational behavioral constructs in the leadership literature, such as providing supportive or caring leadership; it empowers leaders, develops subordinates’ skills and confidence, and represents the interests of subordinates (Aslam et al. 2024; Onesti 2023; Yukl 2006). Asif et al. (2019) found a positive relationship between ethical leadership and affective commitment. To understand ethical leadership, Brown and Treviño (2006) used two theoretical frameworks, which are social learning theory (Bandura 1977) and social exchange theory (Blau 1964):

5.2.1. Social Learning Theory (SLT)

SLT focuses on the premise and consequences of ethical leadership and emphasizes the importance of observing, modeling, and imitating others’ behavior, attitudes, and emotional reactions. Social learning is possible through one’s own experiences and by observing (Bandura 1977). To achieve those standards, individuals need to follow and imitate trustworthy and attractive role models (Brown and Treviño 2006). Ethical leaders become trustworthy and attractive role models when they demonstrate honesty and set high ethical standards for themselves and others (Brown et al. 2005). Employees are more likely to imitate and internalize the value-oriented behaviors of ethical leaders who model their role (Brown and Treviño 2006). Ethical leadership influences ethical behavior through the means of communication and motivation (Bandura 1977). Leaders as role models stimulate ethical behavior by demonstrating the type of action they want to promote and reward. In addition, leaders also serve as information guides for acceptable behaviors.

5.2.2. Social Exchange Theory (SET)

Through social exchange processes, scholars propose that ethical leadership shapes followers’ behaviors (Brown et al. 2005; Blau 1964). Based on SET, individuals’ behavior is shaped by the benefits and costs they believe they will derive from social interactions (Blau 1964). According to SET, when followers perceive a leader as concerned for their well-being, they feel an obligation to reciprocate the leader’s behavior. Based on these ideas, Brown and Treviño (2006) and Brown et al. (2005) propose that ethical leaders should instill a sense of trust and equity in their employees and create an organizational environment where employees are more likely to benefit the organization.

Brown and Treviño (2006) and Burns (1978) argued that the essence of ethical leadership is ethical behavior. Ethical behavior is an important part of several leadership theories, such as transformational leadership (Bass 1985; Burns 1978), servant leadership (Greenleaf 2002), spiritual leadership (Fry 2003), and authentic leadership (Avolio and Gardner 2005):

Transformational Leadership

Burns (1978) posited that transformational leadership is inherently ethical, as these leaders inspire their followers to transcend self-interest for a common good. Kanungo (2001) supports this by suggesting that transformational leadership involves a moral influence that transactional leadership lacks. However, Bass (1985) contends that transformational leaders can exhibit ethical or unethical behavior depending on their underlying motivations. Empirical studies, such as those by Brown et al. (2005), have found that ethical leadership is significantly correlated with the idealized influence dimension of transformational leadership.

Authentic Leadership

The authentic leader is “confident, hopeful, optimistic, resilient, transparent, moral/ethical, future-oriented, and gives priority to developing associates to be leaders” (Luthans and Avolio 2003, p. 243). According to Avolio et al. (2004), authentic leadership serves as a “root structure” that can integrate elements of "charismatic, transformative, integrity and/or ethical leadership”.

Spiritual Leadership

Spiritual leadership includes “the values, attitudes, and behaviors necessary to promote the nature of one and others so that they have a sense of spiritual existence through calling and membership” and “covers religion, ethics, and value-based approaches to leadership” (Fry 2003, pp. 694–95). In addition, spiritual leadership is also “demonstrated through behavior, whether in individual reflective practice or in the ethical, compassionate, and respectfultreatment of others” (Reave 2005, p. 663). Although these theories highlight the importance of ethics for effective leadership, none of them fully explains the influence of one leader’s ethical behavior (Brown and Treviño 2006).

In this context, future research might investigate: (1) the adaptation of ethical leadership to challenges like data privacy, algorithmic bias, and the ethical deployment of AI; (2) the interpretation and application of ethical leadership principles across various cultural contexts, and how to align global leadership practices with local ethical standards; (3) the impact of ethical leadership on key metrics such as organizational resilience, employee well-being, and long-term sustainability; and (4) the effectiveness of ethical leadership practices during crises, including economic recessions or organizational scandals.

5.3. Ethical Behavior in Business

Valentine and Barnett (2007) noticed that recent scandals related to corporate governance (Hewlett Packard) and financial fraud and misrepresentation (Enron, WorldCom, and Tyco) have highlighted concerns about ethics in business and ethical reasoning, and it is becoming increasingly common to see business ethics stories on the front pages of newspapers, magazine covers, and leading television news programs. Therefore, business ethics has received considerable attention from the corporate, academic, and public sectors over the past few decades. According to Lewis (1985), the definition of “business ethics” can be defined in terms of 12 concepts:

• Focus on social responsibility;
• Emphasis on honesty and fairness;
• Focus on “Golden Rules”;
• Values that are consistent with a person’s behavior or religious beliefs;
• Obligations, responsibilities, and rights towards dedicated or enlightened work;
• Philosophy of good or bad;
• Ability to clarify issues in decision making;
• Focus on personal conscience;
• Systems or theories of justice that question the quality of one’s relationships;
• The relationship of the means to ends;
• Concern with integrity, what should be, habits, logic, and principles of Aristotle;
• Emphasis on virtue, leadership, confidentiality, judgment of others, putting God first, topicality, and publicity.

The influence of theories of business and marketing ethics are consistent in that the ethical context of the organization and how employees perceive the ethical standards of the organization are the main situational factors that can influence the ethical decisionmaking of employees (Ferrell and Gresham 1985; Jones 1991; Treviño 1986).

Values, Business Ethics, and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

In the business context, specifically in the corporate environment, ethical behavior is expressed through CSR. Aguinis (2011) defined CSR as “contextual organizational policies and actions that take into account stakeholder expectations and the three key points of economic, social and society, and the environment”. CSR can also be understood as all the decisions of an organization that go beyond its economic and technical interests (Carroll 1991). Besides that, the concept of CSR is also mentioned, used, and cited by many researchers (Bauman and Skitka 2012; Kim et al. 2016; Kim et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2019). CSR is the model first identified in 1979 by Carroll (1991). Carroll (1991, 2016) proposed a four-level model of CSR including economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary (later called charitable) levels of social responsibility.

Advocates of the broader view of CSR argue that businesses must use their power and resources for broad social purposes and not just for the narrow benefit of individuals. Individuals and private firms are for profit maximization (Frederick 1960). Companies with social responsibility must first achieve their economic goals and fulfill their legal obligations. However, they must also adhere to ethical standards, although not required by law, and actively participate in some charitable or other discretionary activity that helps address society’s needs (Carroll 1991; Wartick and Cochran 1985; Wood 1991).

The economic responsibilities of the company are to produce goods and services for a profit. Complying with social laws and regulations and carrying out economic responsibilities are corporate legal responsibilities. It is the company’s ethical responsibility to meet society’s expectations of conscientious and proper behavior. Carroll acknowledges that in developing this responsibility, these expectations can be more than just a matter of complying with the law, according to the text of the law, but can go further in the pursuit of the spirit of the law. Finally, corporate discretionary liability includes an obligation to perform acts of a voluntary nature designed to provide for the betterment of society, such as making charitable contributions or providing other benefits and certain employee benefits. The company is not obligated to carry out such acts because of its legal responsibility and it will not be considered unethical not to engage in these activities, but the company has the sole discretion to do so as a contributing member of society (Carroll 1991).

In their bibliometric analysis on ethical food consumption, Beciu et al. (2024) highlighted the importance of incorporating ethical considerations into modern digital technologies to ensure they are in harmony with “human values and sustainability goals”. In this context, future research might explore: (1) the implementation of ethical frameworks in technology-centric business environments; (2) the role of ethical values during crises, such as financial difficulties or scandals, and its effectiveness in maintaining trust; (3) the evolution of CSR practices in response to emerging societal expectations and global challenges, including consumer boycotts of unethical brands, with a focus on innovative CSR strategies and their impact on stakeholder relationships and corporate reputation; (4) methods for measuring the success of CSR initiatives and ensuring transparency in reporting; and (5) how multinational corporations manage cultural and ethical diversity across different regions.

5.4. Ethical Behavior in the Medical Context

Biomedical ethics has four principles (Beauchamp and Childress 2001):

5.4.1. Autonomy

In practice, autonomy refers to an individual’s ability to make decisions for him/herself (Beauchamp and Childress 2001). Each patient can express his or her preferences regarding therapies and his or her reasons for accepting or rejecting them, and to uphold this principle, the health care team should respect the patient’s wishes (presumably if they have the competence) about medical interventions (Di Nardo et al. 2019). In many countries, such as Canada, USA, and UK, it is ethically and legally permissible to give up, or request discontinuation of, life-sustaining therapy, even if life-prolonging interventions may be beneficial (Kirsch and Munson 2018; Kirsch et al. 2018).

5.4.2. Beneficence

This principle obliges the health care team to contribute to the person’s welfare with any intervention that directly benefits the patient (Beauchamp and Childress 2001). Common sense requires us to contribute to the welfare of others, which is similar to the Golden Rule (Di Nardo et al. 2019). Beauchamp and Childress (2001) proposed that there are two principles of benefit: positive benefit and utility. The positive interest principle requires the ethical agent to bring benefits, while the utility principle requires the ethical agent to weigh the benefits and the deficit to produce the best outcome (Lawrence 2007).

5.4.3. Non-Maleficence

The principle of non-harm represents an obligation not to cause harm to any person (Beauchamp and Childress 2001). In the healthcare sector, it is not uncommon to see the words “primum non nocere” which means do no harm first. While hardly original, it embodies in just four words the moral principle of non-harm; we should not harm others (Lawrence 2007).

5.4.4. Fairness

The principle of equity in relation to health care considers an obligation to fairly and equitably distribute health and health care (Di Nardo et al. 2019). This entails prioritizing and dividing competing claims (Beauchamp and Childress 2001). Justice addresses questions about the distribution of scarce health care resources, respect for human rights, and respect for ethically accepted laws (Lawrence 2007). Yet another approach is to look at the case presented from the perspective of care ethics, where care is considered to be contextually relevant and constrained to specific situations and has no underlying cause. What general rule or rule of good care will suffice as a guideline for good care practice? (Baur et al. 2017). The core idea of care ethics is that insights about good care emerge from people’s practices in the context of their particular relationship, in which only those directly involved can judge whether good care is being taken (Walker 2007).

In this context, future research could investigate: (1) the ethical challenges posed by emerging medical technologies, including issues related to consent, privacy, and the risk of new forms of inequality or discrimination; (2) the ethical dimensions of genetic privacy, data security, and potential genetic discrimination; (3) the impact of telemedicine on the application of traditional ethical principles; (4) the application of ethical principles during crisis situations, such as epidemics, conflicts, and natural disasters; and (5) the influence of cultural competence on the application of ethical principles across diverse patient populations.

5.5. Ethical Behaviour in Education

One of the factors believed to influence ethical behavior and decision making is education. Kohlberg (1981) hypothesized that people who better understand complex and nuanced issues exhibit more complex levels of ethical reasoning. Based on this view, researchers frequently hypothesize a positive relationship between education and moral judgment (Pan and Sparks 2012). In it, ethical judgment involves assessing one’s perceptions and feelings about the right or wrong of some behavior or policy (Wiegmann and Waldmann 2014). However, some investigations have revealed a negative association between education and moral judgments, while other investigations have indicated no link between them (see e.g., Murrell 2014; Pan and Sparks 2012). Although these experimental results may seem to contradict Kohlberg’s theory, they may support it. Higher levels of education may encourage people to consider more fully alternative points of view or mitigating circumstances rather than assessing complex ethical issues in a strictly narrow sense (Pan and Sparks 2012).

More specifically, in the educational context, it is the student’s learning ethics. The study ethics of students at the university level is determined by many different factors. Institutional culture, personal preferences and moral beliefs, external factors, and peer pressure are some of the factors that play an important role in a college student’s ethical behavior (Saini 2013). According to Arefeen et al. (2020), there are four types of factors that force students to make moral judgments: (1) violation of school rules; (2) selfishness; (3) fraud; and (4) computer ethics.

5.5.1. Violation of School/University Regulation

Violating school regulations is one of the unethical behaviors of students. In one study, high school and college students assessed that physical impact disputes would be acceptable if the person was provoked or acted in legitimate defense, according to Cauffman et al. (2000).

5.5.2. Selfishness

Selfishness, characterized by prioritizing one’s own interests over those of others, has been extensively studied in the context of morality and ethical behavior. Arefeen et al. (2020) found that individuals with high egoism scores are intrinsically motivated by the pursuit of ultimate goals, often willing to take significant risks to achieve their desired outcomes. For these individuals, morality is not just a survival mechanism but a strategic tool for achieving a prosperous and fulfilling life (Overall and Gedeon 2023). Further research by Çollaku et al. (2024) indicates that selfishness can positively influence moral justification, with the effect of selfishness on the intentions of certified accountants to engage in fraudulent practices being mediated by this moral justification. This highlights how selfish motives can lead individuals to rationalize unethical behavior by aligning it with their personal goals and justifications.

5.5.3. Cheating

Cheating is widely recognized as an unethical practice and a violation of academic integrity and institutional rules. As noted by Arefeen et al. (2020), cheating undermines the educational process and erodes trust in academic environments. Common forms of cheating include allowing others to copy work, copying from others, reusing papers, and plagiarism (Yardley et al. 2009). These behaviors reflect a broader issue of academic dishonesty, which is often exacerbated by inadequate detection and enforcement measures. The prevalence of plagiarism in academic settings is partly due to the difficulty in detecting and addressing it effectively. Research by Bunn et al. (1992) found that 70% of students perceive copying as a relatively minor offense, suggesting a lack of serious consequence or deterrence. Furthermore, Graham (1994) observed that students who are more tolerant of academic dishonesty are more likely to engage in cheating themselves compared to those who adhere strictly to academic integrity standards.

5.5.4. Computer Ethics

Computer ethics is a multifaceted interdisciplinary field that intersects with both ethical theory and information technology. As the digital landscape evolves, understanding the ethical implications of technology use becomes increasingly crucial. Soler-Costa et al. (2021) emphasize that navigating online ethics requires a robust understanding of both ethical principles and technological systems, particularly information technology. The rapid expansion of the internet and the proliferation of digital resources have introduced new ethical challenges, particularly in academic settings.

Historically, the ease of accessing and disseminating information online has facilitated various forms of unethical behavior. Nathanson et al. (2006) highlight that the accessibility of online content has made academic dishonesty more prevalent, as students can easily download and present work from multiple sources without proper attribution. This challenge has been compounded by technological advancements such as email, instant messaging, and mobile devices, which McMurtry (2001) suggests create new opportunities for fraudulent activities (as cited in Chapman et al. 2004). The widespread use of computers and the internet has indeed contributed to an increase in academic dishonesty, as noted by Ross (2005) and Underwood and Szabo (2003).

A study by Şendağ et al. (2012) involving 1153 students from a Midwestern university revealed that a significant portion of students admit to using internet resources like chat rooms, blogs, forums, and social media for academic support during individual assignments. This trend, termed e-dishonesty, underscores the need for a deeper understanding of how digital tools are influencing academic integrity.

In this context, future research could investigate the following areas: (1) how social media influencers and online personalities contribute to selfish attitudes and behaviors among students, teachers, and educational leaders; the impact of selfishness on the ethics of educational institutions and decision making; the effectiveness of ethical training in mitigating selfish behavior within education; and the effects of selfish behavior on environmental ethics and sustainability practices in educational settings; (2) the psychological and behavioral factors contributing to cheating among students and employees; strategies for preventing cheating, including fostering ethical awareness; variations in cheating behaviors and attitudes across different cultural and regional contexts; and the relationship between AI and cheating in education; and (3) the relationship between AI and ethical decision making; ethical considerations related to digital behavior across various cultural contexts; the ethical use of digital tools in distance learning; and the impact of gamification on students’ ethical behavior.

5.6. Ethical Context in Organization

Ethical contexts of so-called ethical cultures (Singhapakdi 1993; Treviño 1986; Treviño et al. 1998) and ethical environments (Victor and Cullen 1988) differ. Within the organization, the ethical context is established by the organization’s involvement in activities related to social performance or actions that enhance stakeholder welfare and support philanthropic, ethical, legal, and economic responsibilities (Carroll 1991; McGuire 1963; Treviño and Nelson 2021). In a document describing business ethics, according to Victor and Cullen (1988), the researchers stated that the ethical context was represented mainly by two multidimensional structures: the ethical climate and the ethical culture (Treviño 1986).

5.6.1. Context of Organizational Ethical Climate

Ethical Climate Theory (ECT) was first proposed by Victor and Cullen (1988) and was originally conceptualized as an analytical tool for understanding organizational normative systems. The importance of ECT for both research and practice is emphasized when one considers that the various and frequent cases of ethical violations in organizations, especially due to different outcomes in the workplace, are influenced by the ethical environment (e.g., Mulki et al. 2012; Laratta 2011; Wang and Hsieh 2012).

There are many working environments, such as environmental innovation (e.g., Agrell and Gustafson 1994; Klein and Sorra 1996); creative environment (Mumford et al. 2002); communicative, warm, and supportive environment (e.g., Field and Abelson 1982); diverse environment (McKay et al. 2009); justice environment (Dietz et al. 2003; Liao and Rupp 2005); related environment (e.g., Chen et al. 2007; Richardson and Vandenberg 2005); and safe environment (e.g., Hofmann and Mark 2006; Hofmann and Mark 2006; Zohar 2010). All these different work environments are known to influence the behavior of organizational actors to a large extent (Noh and Kim 2024; Tsai et al. 2008).

Ethical environment is a subset of these organized work environments and also has a strong influence on some organizational outcomes. Ethical environment can be defined as the perception of what constitutes correct behavior, and thus becomes a psychological mechanism through which ethical issues are managed (Martin et al. 2014). The ethical environment influences both decision making and behavioral responses to ethical dilemmas, which will then be reflected in various job outcomes. Previous studies dealing with the ethical environment touch on fundamental issues that are important to organizational participants, influencing people’s responses to their work and organizations (Onesti 2023; Noh and Kim 2024).

Additionally, Ellemers et al. (2008) argued that the structure of the ethical environment approaches the concept of ethical norms, that is, behavioral guidelines that promote the interpretation of what is right and wrong in groups and organizations. While some view the ethical environment as a single construct (Schwepker 2001; Schminke et al. 2007; Mayer 2014), the concept of the moral environment is often considered multidimensional by Victor and Cullen (1988); Babin et al. (2000); and DeConinck (2011). For example, Victor and Cullen (1988) proposed a theory of the moral environment that includes nine types of ethical environments based on two aspects: (1) the criteria used to make ethical decisions (i.e., egoism, benevolence, and principle), and (2) the locus of analysis (i.e. individual, local, and global).

5.6.2. Context of Organizational Ethical Culture

As mentioned, the concept of moral culture is first mentioned regarding the ethical working environment in the organization (Victor and Cullen 1988). They argued that the ethical culture structure describes how members of an organization are able to respond to ethical dilemmas (Treviño et al. 1998). The article concludes that “ethical culture is a description-based construct that represents the extent to which an organization actually attempts to influence the behavior of its members through a variety of cultural systems”, and therefore “more acceptable cultural-ethical constructs are used exclusively to predict individual behavior” (Treviño et al. 1998). An organization’s ethical culture can influence an individual’s cognitive processes and provide clues as to how people decide to act in ethical situations in the organization’s area (Roy et al. 2024).

Both “moral environment” and “moral culture” constructs are related to unethical behavior, but ethical culture explains unethical behavior better than the ethical environment because, as Treviño et al. (1998) argued, the ethical environment is related to attitudes, and the ethical culture is more specifically related to the factors that influence behavior.

In this context, future research could investigate: (1) how digital advancements, such as AI and machine learning, shape the ethical climate within organizations. This includes assessing their effects on transparency, decision making, and ethical behavior, and evaluating whether they introduce new ethical challenges or reinforce existing ones; (2) how the shift to remote and hybrid work models affects the ethical climate of organizations and how the ethical climate varies across different cultural contexts; (3) how organizational changes, such as mergers, acquisitions, and restructuring, impact the ethical climate and how different leadership styles and practices influence the ethical climate of organizations and mitigating unethical behavior; (4) how perceived ethical support, clarity of ethical guidelines, and organizational commitment affect individual ethical decision making, and (5) how organizations can integrate ethical climate considerations into their CSR strategies to achieve better social and environmental outcomes.

6. Conclusions

To develop a comprehensive scientific framework for predicting future research directions in the field of ethical behavior, it is essential to construct a master map of the topic. This study conducted a bibliometric analysis of research on ethical behavior to explore the scientific structure and relationships among major publications in the field. We combined three bibliometric methods—bibliographic coupling, co-citation analysis, and co-occurrence analysis—to provide a broad overview of this research area, enabling researchers to position their work and identify new research directions. Our analysis identified influential keywords, publications, authors, journals, and countries by uncovering systematic clusters through VOSviewer software, which also facilitated the visualization of these research directions through graphical and network-based representations.

Several key findings emerged from this research. First, our study reveals that leading countries such as the USA and the UK have produced a substantial volume of research on ethical behavior across various contexts, including organization, business, education, health, consumption, and politics. This indicates significant contributions from these regions to the field. Second, our study documents ethical behavior in multiple contexts through a comprehensive system of keywords, publications, authors, and journals worldwide. The co-occurrence analysis of keywords provided diverse perspectives on the research topic, including focus areas, research contexts, and potential future directions. Third, our use of bibliographic coupling and co-citation techniques revealed clusters of related publications, offering a valuable resource for theoretical synthesis and analysis in the field of ethics across different contexts. Comparison of these clusters suggested four potential new research directions: health, education, consumption, and business (social responsibility).

Furthermore, incorporating articles from a range of fields such as consumption, business, education, and medical sciences has broadened our understanding of how ethical behavior is studied and applied across different contexts. This interdisciplinary approach offers a more nuanced view of ethical behavior, highlighting variations in its interpretation and application across domains. Our study underscores the importance of cross-disciplinary research for enhancing our understanding of ethical behavior and uncovering new research opportunities. Future research should explore these interdisciplinary connections to foster innovative methodologies and develop more robust theoretical frameworks. For example, there is a need for more in-depth investigation into ethical behavior related to digital technology in medicine and education, especially considering cultural diversity and stakeholder perspectives. Additionally, examining the relationship between ethical behavior and sustainability in fields such as education and medicine presents a significant research gap.

Finally, numerous research gaps remain that warrant further exploration. Through addressing these areas, researchers can significantly advance their understanding of ethical behavior across various contexts, thereby providing valuable insights with both practical and scientific relevance.

7. Limitations and Future Research

This is the first study to combine bibliographic coupling, co-citation, and co-occurrence analysis to analyze research papers related to ethical behavior in context. Therefore, limitations cannot be avoided. Firstly, limitations are typically associated with bibliometric analysis. The data analyzed in the study were downloaded from the WoS database, so data from other databases or collected at different times may have yielded different results and conclusions (Zemigala 2019; Comoli et al. 2023). Future research on this topic could make it possible to categorize articles into time periods for analysis and easy comparison of differences across milestones. In addition, this study is limited to scientific articles and limited to the search terms “ethical behavior” and “context” to ensure scientific significance and avoid mixing in the data set. The results in the analysis may not fully cover the existing literature. Furthermore, the research paper uses topics (titles, abstracts and keywords) as the search scope; topics searched in article titles or keywords can lead to other findings (Ye et al. 2020). Secondly, when analyzing countries where ethical behavior is studied in context, the study shows that the authors focus on American, British, and Canadian societies. Therefore, the authors’ views on ethical behavior in a context may be influenced by their social and cultural values as well as their social policy concerns (Gamarra and Girotto 2022). Sinceconcerns and realities vary from country to country, the contexts of ethical behavior are diverse and dissimilar. This suggests that ethical behavior in context has not yet developed into a knowledge base that reflects the global diversity of the field. Future studies may analyze the differences in this research topic more clearly across different country groups. Finally, due to the subjective judgment of the authors, the classification and naming of these topics may be misleading. In addition, keywords may not fully describe the content of the publication due to the limited number of keywords in a publication. Therefore, some keywords may not be mentioned.