3.1. Historical Background
Some investigations encountered through this state of the art analysis, revealed the historical root phases on what defined the fitness equipment categories arriving until how are nowadays internationally labelled. These works came mainly from other literature reviews and are here redacted with a chronology logic for two reasons: (a) to introduce the following paragraphs (product’s life-cycle processes) and (b) to provide the current and updated vision of the fitness equipment sector since its inception (
Appendix C).
Van Hilvoorde [
1], using a continental European approach, explains that a French visionary named Hyppolite Triat, in the late-19th century, was one of the first to develop fitness ‘ideals’ by opening commercially-exploited gymnasiums in Liège, Brussels and Paris. Gymnastics were transformed into theatrical spectacles, planned with the circus groundwork (trapezes, beams, rope ladder and masts), and a complete collection of weights (dumbbells, barbells, Indian clubs, etc.). At the same time, in the Dutch context, Dr. Geraldus Arnoldus Nicolaas Allebe has been cited for his greater relevance. In Germany, evidence has been found of ideas and machines focused on isolated muscular groups but not developed within educational contexts. In sum, in this stage, fitness equipment was ‘freed’ from ideological associations and was neutral with regard to variables such as gender, age and social class (public or private spaces). During the same historical moment, when the first ‘artist-entrepreneurs’ such as MacFadden and Sandow finally arrive to the final audience, the evolution of fitness devices in journals, for sports and physical education have definitively started. In this period, the main communication tools were newspaper advertising, periodicals, books, photography and films.
In the late-19th century and the first three decades of the 20th century in Germany, England and North America, distinctions between weight-lifting, bodybuilding, wrestling and circus-strongman performances were not always clearly drawn [
27]. These various disciplines were neither considered nor practiced separately, and they were sometimes even understood as an organic whole. The final goal in training with weights was to increase strength and develop an attractive body. These numerous ideas and models were brought together around the turn of the century under the general term of ‘Life Reform Movement’. In these environments, the most utilised means of advertisement were records, lectures, specialist magazines and exercise handbooks.
In the past century, between the sixties and seventies, a number of events affected studies about the history of medicine, the body, health and fitness [
7]. The ‘motor’ metaphor was a useful device for studying the body’s physiological and neurological processes. Some of the most useful works concerning H&F were focused on exercise, physical training, sports and athletics. During the same period, a Chinese perspective was provided by Zhang [
28] that divided the national sports industry into three stages: exploratory (1978–1992), formative (1993–1996) and developmental (1997-present).
The extrapolated studies also focus on ‘Nordic’ milestones of the fitness industry, from a wider range of view, from the beginning [
16] to the latter half of the 20th century [
29]. The first study addresses the introduction of gymnastics as a subject in the Norwegian school system. The rooms allocation and the choice of equipments were used as instruments to form pupils’ bodies and minds. The equipments already included were: climbing ribs (less than 100-cm-wide sections), ropes, rope ladders, ladders, net ladders, beams, vaulting horses, box horses, bucks, springboards, cushions, balls, jump ropes and mats. In contrast to Central Europe provided version [
1], these equipments must never transform gymnastics into acrobatics and ‘circum-like’ conditions. The second publication [
29] considerable attention to the development and organisation of fitness exercise inside the Scandinavian Peninsula (Denmark, Norway and Sweden). This contribution brings to the actualised vision of the activity forms included in for-profit fitness in three main types: (1) individual training studios, with a variety of physical-amenities, aimed at strengthening specific body segments; (2) group-based trainings (aerobic cardio-works, etc.) focused on cardiorespiratory endurance; and (3) relaxation exercises, not always human-product related, that include a variety of wellness concepts and approaches. These historical roots and milestones bring fitness equipment to the ‘modern era’ of the fitness industry.
3.2. Creation Stages
The first step, in the modern age of the fitness industry is, undoubtedly, given by the phases needed to generate, from a cero or basic level, a new piece of training system, or almost define the creation stages in what already exists in the current society (
Appendix A and
Appendix B).
There is evidence that multi-sectorial teamwork is at the foundation of daily life manufacturing industries [
30]. Biomedical mechanics, manufacturing and design engineers, IT specialists and human body practitioners act in unison. Countries around the world typically divide special workout equipments into four creation categories: (1) hydraulic, (2) electric/electromagnetic damping, (3) pneumatic and (4) gravity-mechanical. Always during the concept creation, in relation to the procedures through which is normally to operate inside an enterprise, another classification of products is provided by Fu [
14] that divide equipment between oxygen and aerobic. Currently, it is hard to meet the fitness needs of modern people with ‘traditional’ apparatus so both domestic and international entities have begun to explore more ‘intelligent’ fitness equipment. These categories of machines can collect physiological parameters and providing a wide variety of related functions (virtual channels, explanatory videos, etc.), measure the size of ejection forces, and provide quantified training useful for both trainers and trainees [
30].
Products typically follow a cycle of introduction, growth, maturity, decline and termination [
31]. The H&F industry is in the early maturity phase of the sector life-cycle. In this regard, Williams et al. [
32] underline that it is not always easy, depending on the magnitude of the reality in question, to acquire ‘Top of Mind Awareness’ (TOMA) in potential future customers. There are three primary reasons why brand awareness is a component of brand ‘equity’: to increase customer consideration, create effective decision-making and influence the brand association’s (product and/or service) formation.
As affirmed by two studies [
33,
34], manufacturing industries also need to take into account variables related to the final operators, users and facilities in which they, regularly, are purchased. Between these, there are safety practices connected to the hardware’s layouts, with operating procedures and conditions required to correctly apply products in health centres. The four overall factors included in the analysis are the enterprise’s guidelines for safe operations: (1) the importance of spaces for hypothetical hazards, (2) possible barriers for people with physical disabilities, (3) obstacles or stairs to ‘get inside’ the machine and (4) the challenge of creating specific new fitness equipment (supposedly the hardest topic) that does not contradict the previous points.
Current recommendations affirm that fitness gyms and private health clubs are an outstanding global business, but new ‘trends’ such as franchising chains, and specific-environment workout spaces are the new frontiers of product creation aimed at final purchase and consolidation [
5].
3.3. Product Features
The literature suggests a direct connection among all variables that define, catalogue and divide fitness equipments in the electronic databases in the past decades. Since the beginning of the 21st century, it has become evident that there are few differences among the main bodies of the products (indexed to each single sub-category), brands and marketing promotions [
35]. The barriers of entering and withdrawing in the trades become bigger, and the point of view of the industrial organisation (from theory to the practice) plays a key role. The size and mass of the devices are important parameters [
36], as well as other parameters analysed in the literature (
Appendix A and
Appendix B).
Numerous studies focus on the indispensable physiological, anthropometric and biomechanical paradigms [
37]. H&F devices have wide application: laboratories, training centres, competitive contexts, etc. These are the reasons why these body-related factors are defined as basic knowledge in the field. The versatility, for a product designed with ergonomic criteria, indicates hypothetically high levels of usability. As seen in the visionary approach of Reilly and Thomas [
38], the man-machine interface needs anthropometric data to give correct responses to the users who interface with it. Physiological methods and time-motion analysis have also been evaluated as relevant variables. Starting from ergonomic reasons, and still related to multifunctional applicability, the degrees of freedom of the amenity is defined as important including the rehabilitation active phases [
39].
Similarly, for biomechanics, flexibility concerns studies do not directly relate to the material sciences, but rather to the adaptable meaning of the word. Scientific evidence underlines the importance of its effects and the ability to be used in various contexts [
1,
40]. Still, muscle strengthening, actions (concentric, eccentric, etc.), reactions, the variety of speeds of contractions and muscle recruitments and all the relations with bone concepts have been assessed, through selected devices, by various authors reviewed [
36,
37,
38,
40,
41]. The initial comparison is often related to exercises carried out with free weights and, as a more generic definition provided, the workout against supra-normal loads. Findings reveal that non-electrically powered, yet ‘gravity-independent’ equipment, has similar features to ‘traditional’ equipment known to be effective in producing the desired physiological responses [
41].
In relation to the previous feature listed, the quality of usability is mentioned in some studies [
29,
33,
38,
42,
43]. The main topics highlight the importance of the final user guidelines and response types, depending on the type of customer (lately including senior categories) and the operative capacities when a monitor or display is included in the physical amenity. Other quality variables treated include the educational aspects for H&F professionals, addressing, for example, the application variables needed to make the most of the selected products from each manufacturer in their own context (overall population, population per km
2, area in km
2, penetration rates, etc.).
Five additional tangible quality parameters have been mentioned in most evaluated publications in relation to existing products: (1) attractiveness [
4,
38], (2) efficiency [
17,
43], (3) high quality and experienced design control [
1,
4,
42], (4) functional and practical linearity [
1,
38] and (5) specialty and cost [
30]. Additionally, three intangible aspects emerged: (1) beneficial [
17], (2) engagement and (3) ‘magic moments’ during every use of the fitness apparatus [
4].
The analysis continues with the environmental parameters in which the products need to be placed and begins with a source evaluation [
36]. The surrounding structure or the external environment is not affected through unnecessary noise or induced vibrations, especially when the evaluated equipment does not have a mechanical system included in the hardware parts. These aspects could indicate the insecurity of the product and cause subordinated issues related to the increase of temperature, humidity and lighting vibrations [
42].
Aside from being one of the most discussed topics, sectoral providers already know the importance of the overall safety and hazard prevention related to the physicality of the equipments which is not fundamental only for the health care and rehabilitation applicabilities, but also for the entire population who daily uses the products [
44]. Many studies address this topic to the machines final features [
1,
17,
30,
33,
38,
39,
43]. Evaluations began from preventive acts to avoid hurts and joint injuries during utilisation, until touch the comfort in creating a safe fitness ‘experience’.
3.4. Innovation Paths
It is widely accepted that creating quality products and services require a well-trained and skilled workforce, business strategies and polyfunctional abilities that give momentum to the fitness industry innovation [
45]. The factor for successful innovation is not exactly the same for every company [
46]. Sorting and analysing the individual cases can serve as a basis of reference and act as a guidepost for other companies in similar industries during their business development. Subsequently, it is possible to strengthen the enterprise’s capacity in order to accelerate process innovation, reduce dependence on other economies and develop marketing brand strategies to promote and generate more added values [
28].
To create an attractive fitness brand, an enterprise does not necessarily need innovation products or services, but something, or someone, with personality and the right preparation to give vitality to the brand [
12]. Since quality of life is rising constantly, the fitness industry has developed quickly due to the high demand worldwide [
47]. A lack of innovation, in addition to other related factors, such as product research and technical development, could restrict the number of members which participate to the delivered course of service practices [
48]. The innovation activity of a sectoral trader (procedure inputs/processes outputs) is separated into three phases: motivation, process and performance [
46]. Through these stages, the enterprise’s competitive advantages and efficiencies can be clearly seen.
Thirty years ago, Dibble [
15] made an observation that represents the current reality and could be written today with an eye to the future (p. 74):
“The fitness industry is far from exhausted […] manufacturers seem taking a rational and scientific approach in designing the next generation of fitness equipment […] not satisfied with simple muscular or cardiovascular improvements they are taking steps toward an intelligent workout that optimises user’s time […] another design target is increased interaction between user and the equipment […] if you can ‘see’ progresses and intensities you will be more inclined to provide an extra-effort required to correctly complete an exercise”.
Studies have explored seven quality innovation areas desired for a product’s overall growth, which should be kept in mind: (1) bodily and physiological, (2) tangible corporeality, (3) intangible corporeality, (4) intangible variables, (5) trade actions, (6) field personnel and (7) final consumer (
Appendix A and
Appendix B).
These seven key points, divided along the continuation sub-paragraphs, correspond to the main fitness equipment facets obtained from the traditional literature analysis performed (product life-cycle phases and manufacturing key players).
1 Bodily and Physiological
The first quality dimension of H&F equipments is directly related to the human body and its physiological parameters. These are useful to entirely embrace all that is required to carry out physical activities through physical amenities.
As noted by Reilly and Lees [
37], training apparatus has a similar emphasis on exercise specificity, but not all of its related functionalities are triggered by the required physiological movements. Another analysed theme is the standardisation of body gestures and all the named kinaesthetic skills [
4]. Additionally, the structure needed to meet the ergonomic requirements is planned in order to render the patterns more comfortable for different groups of people who will use the equipment [
47]. Between the safety qualities, connected to biomechanics, there are the related and required input-admission measurements [
11], and body dimensions data useful to categorise the user type [
42]. The physiological changes induced by physical activity, such as motion sickness, spatial disorientation, orthostatic hypotension, muscle atrophy and bone demineralisation, are evaluated by Davis and Davis [
36].
2 Tangible corporeality
Continuing to analyse the tangible qualities, required to create new products, is normal to list all the attributes that appear to the insiders manufacturers view and, as well, to the end-users perception.
Everything that is made under the innovative constructs begins from physical security and comfort directives [
37]. Material science has contributed, and will continue to do so, on a large scale in hitting implements. In addition, strict safety factors are highly demanded at all buyer levels [
42]. Safety guarantees in the design should decrease accident probabilities. Additionally, the morphologic semantics shape has been studied. The overall size and structure of the equipments have also been analysed to create a wider applicability [
47].
3 Intangible corporeality
Another important innovation aspect related to corporeality is everything immaterial that can be directly handled by manufacturers and play a vital role for industry operators and, especially, end-users. What works best for the success of a product is the innovative design perspective of hardware and software amenities [
17,
37]. For example, an experienced design of the fitness services brings to the key factor of the ‘lived’ body [
4]. The logo design of the company has also been included among the evaluated ‘attributes’ and obtained a rating of 5.83 ± 1.02 on a 7-point Likert scale for purchase decisions [
49].
Among the four main factors of industry success there is the ‘mastering technologies’ facet [
46]. In this regard, companies gain a great chance to extend their business by paying more attention to technological innovations [
47]. Combining concepts of modern technology (personal computers, tablets, etc.) a device is normally perceived closer to the user’s ways of work [
11].
Only one study considered the order of methods to conduct energy storage [
11], and another study aimed on how IT visions are transmitted vertically and horizontally to the global market [
4].
Effects of virtual reality and interactive interfaces have been studied in the user view for adherence, and to obtain real-time exercise information to check the accuracy [
47]. Involvement and adherence have been assessed by two research groups [
50,
51], where a virtual reality enhancement exercise obtained the highest levels of attendance and effects of sensory input, such as music and video feedback, have been studied by means of computerised attentional focuses (gaze strategy orientations).
4 Intangible variables
All those ‘sensations’ produced by the equipment that are reflected on fitness professionals and, especially, to the final consumers are an important sphere of innovation which is also covered by all those non-material-themed aspects (
Appendix B).
During their leisure time (when most use fitness equipment), users want to avoid boredom, time complaints, and more in general need something enjoyment to not impend in reasons of declining interest [
15,
51]. This is often correlated to studies of the areas of emotional and sensational knowledges and body-related skills [
4].
Various psychological variables have been evaluated in relation to fitness devices [
49,
50,
52]. Among these are positive engagement, revitalisation, tranquillity, physical exhaustion, dissociation, regulated competition, enjoyable experience and all the ‘benefits’ (identification, acceptance, nostalgia, place pride, etc.). The only article addressing the psychological suggestions related to the product’s colours is offered by Wang and Gao [
42].
5 Trade actions
The final applicability and adaptability of fitness equipment in the environments and international communities represent the triumph or not of the same. As affirmed by Guest and Taylor [
53] regarding product orientation, success comes to those organisations that offer goods and services considered ‘good’ by the final audience. Efficiency of corporate costs, efficient production (phase cycles) and optimal distribution systems and channels are at the foundation of sectoral affirmation.
In competitive sport activity contexts, it is already known that bilateral correlation between specific disciplines and related equipment is not always clear [
37]. Thus, product’s marketing actions must be analysed and defined in terms of similarity (or differences) from other objects that might occupy the same environment in relation to the sector competitors [
12,
17]. Additionally, still connected to the machinery’s trading, have been assessed corporate revenues and profitability for each created and moved equipment inside targeted environments [
54].
Among the additional guidelines emerged in literature, three are cited: (1) create a clear brand position [
46] including themed area contents in relation to health and rehab applications in order to obtain more hypothetical active consumers [
11]; (2) differentiate products and be a smart marketer [
44]; and (3) study and focus on ‘basic’ application variables such as geographies, cultures, genders, races and classes [
55]. The costs of new and innovative product or service development in the global market have risen, prohibiting the emergence of new brands [
12].
6 Field personnel
Behind every device there is a defined multi-area skill force of practitioners, most of them starting from the employment of diversified talents [
44,
46].
According to Guest and Taylor [
53], excluding the assembly, IT, design and engineering departments, a total of 56% of corporate respondents said that their principal professional background was in sports and leisure management, followed by administrative or general management at 16%. For the fitness industry, there is no clear link between competitive strategies, and established skills [
45]. Among the attributes of the sectoral brand equity there is research evaluating the role of ‘star players’ within companies [
49].
Two enterprise case studies provide new approaches ways to develop innovative ideas. Kennedy-Armbruster et al. [
17] explain that there is a need for collaborative education models (translational education) between institutions of higher education and for-profit corporations to create real personal relationships. Another contribution, facing the company’s personal accountability and ownership, established a direct connection between employees and sectoral trader’s financial performances [
54]. The OZ Principle
® (Getting Results Through Individual and Organisational Accountability) encompasses four steps: see, own, solve and do it.
7 Final consumer
After the conception, creation, features applicability and, where possible, innovation, every product needs an audience by which public demand is generated. Indeed, the ultimate judge of the adequacy of public sector leisure provision is the customer [
53].
Field consumer-based brand equity is defined through 16 reviewed dimensions divided by attributes, benefits and acceptance [
49]. Yet, it is equally true that in the way to know one’s potential consumer, a clear winning choice should be that the companies could study the final consumer before [
44]. Contemporary societies do not matter the criteria and paths in which human-machinic fitness products are nowadays assembled [
55].
Enterprises are looking for the real consumer’s feedback from all points of view [
17]. Generate maximal attendance and create or increase levels of interaction are the main objectives at this level of the negotiations [
15,
50,
51].
3.5. Sectoral Environments and Marketing Processes
An important step is to define what has emerged, from the systematic searches in relation to the final environments in which the featured products normally arrive, and which marketing strategies have already been studied and performed. These steps logically occur after the creation, featuring and innovation stages.
The first topic includes the relation between H&F experts and employees, and final consumers [
56]. The study affirms that social marketing approaches in this direction have grown rapidly within the past 20 years. Aside from the normal skills required by the sectoral staff, nowadays interest in self-development is needed to provide better and competent services in relation to what is physically owned. Healey and Marches [
57] observe that several practitioners are also being trained in disease prevention, motivational techniques and health care marketing skills to motivate the same employees, users and their health-related concerns. The fulcrum of marketing models involves the consumer orientation in product/service development, which is why a wellness program is usually critical in its first step regardless of the environment in which it is implemented. According to Grönroos [
58], the quality of the services, physical or otherwise, is divided into ‘expected’ (ad’s, field selling, public relations, pricing, traditions, word-of-mouth, etc.) and ‘perceived’ (in which is included the cover image and connect technical/functional qualities).
The final usage has also been assessed, taking into consideration the financial and access performances and their relationships [
59]. A relevant consumer point of view is provided by McKechnie and colleagues [
60], who analysed the female market segment (aimed mainly to home fitness devices), as a viable target for ads claims through in-depth interviews and a specific questionnaire. The information sought included the type and brand of the equipment in possession, which family figure bought the device and the reasons that bring to this decision, and, finally, what opined on the future development of this targeted kind of product. Another investigation interviewed sales managers of a studied area and acknowledged that customers rarely complain about the overall qualities of the purchased devices. The types of products included in the analysis were treadmills, cycling machines and workout (muscle strength) apparatuses, including small abdominal-focus amenities. Almost half of the final consumer cohort (44%) affirm that believe in ads claims, and, of those, 34% confirmed that their belief in ads messages depends on the origin of the ad. Always facing the sale moments of the product processes, You et al. [
18] identified two main phases: the equipment allocation decisions and the algorithm that determines the sales limits (expected sales numbers for consumers and management in terms of member recruit limits).
The relationship between a brand’s association and loyalty was studied by Gladden and Funk [
52] in relation to professional sports consumers. Results showed ‘positive’ relations with fan identification, escape, nostalgia, product delivery and loyalty; ‘negative’ with tradition, star player(s) and peer group acceptance. The commercial sponsorship approach has been analysed in terms of its impact on purchasing products in relation to a brand’s image and attachment [
61]. Based on the nature of the entities involved, the model demonstrates that multiple sponsorships activate three ‘brand behavioural dimensions’: cognitive, affective and conative. The changes of post-industrial environments, with a focus on marketing brands, embrace various other influences [
62]: local traditional value views, production and distribution globalisation aspects, hierarchical system transition (e.g., when one brand become sub-brand), the transformation development of family-run management and practices of an enterprise’s liabilities.
Finally, facing the strategic part of the H&F marketing actions has evaluated the demand compliance and the supply-led and interactive convergences investigating the interconnection between the usage of fitness equipment and the related manufacturing industries [
63]. Findings show that production establishments were the Granger cause of training on fitness products and, where not, the opposite relation was confirmed only for supply-led convergence. Nowadays, in this stage of the industry, fitness providers predict future development tendencies through the main competitors’ product analysis, the innovation provided and price variations [
64]. Marketing includes: culture, service, brand allocations and all these variables mixed together. Economic indications are dictated mainly by social development states of international negotiations within fitness industry.