Identification of Existing Challenges and Future Trends for the Utilization of Ammonia-Water Absorption–Compression Heat Pumps at High Temperature Operation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Ammonia-Water Absorption–Compression Heat Pump
- Capacity control by changing the overall composition of the working fluid mixture, resulting in a change in the low-pressure gas density. Hereby, at constant speed and volume flow of the compressor, the mass flow of the vapor and thus the capacity of the heat pump is changed.
- Exploitation of the occurring temperature glides in desorber and absorber can be matched to heat source and sink and thus reduce the irreversibility of the system and enable large temperature spans with comparatively high COPs. The process follows the Lorenz rather than the Carnot process and becomes more effective as the temperature spread increases.
- Compared to pure ammonia, higher heat sink temperatures can be achieved with lower discharge vapor pressure and reduced pressure ratios when water is used as solvent.
Cycle Configurations of the Absorption–Compression Heat Pump
3. State of Technology
Identified Existing Challenges
- Compressor discharge temperature: Occurring discharge temperatures constrain the achievement of higher sink temperatures, as they can cause problems, such as the decomposition of used lubricating oils and material problems in the compressor.
- Compressor lubrication: When oil is used to lubricate the compressor, additional components are needed for separation and cooling, raising the complexity and costs. In addition, the oil tends to penetrate the whole circuit, which requires a recirculation system and can have a negative impact on the heat pump performance.
- Oil-free operation of the system: Compressors that can be operated oil-free or for which lubrication is done by the solution are often associated with higher equipment costs due to necessary modifications or are unavailable for commercial use.
- Absorber and desorber design: An efficient design of the absorber and desorber is an important factor in improving the performance of the system. Therefore, an advanced understanding of the occurring heat transfer phenomena is essential, especially for the absorber at high temperature and high-pressure operation.
- Liquid–vapor mixing and distribution process: When using PHE, an appropriate selection of the operation mode together with effective liquid–vapor mixing and distribution are important to achieve high overall heat transfer coefficients and system performances.
- Solution pump: Cavitation caused by changing low pressure conditions related to rapid changes in compressor operation and operating conditions is a major challenge for the solution pump in ACHP cycles due to the saturated liquid leaving the liquid–vapor separator.
4. Identification of Recent Developments and Possible Solutions
4.1. Compressor Solutions
4.2. Absorber and Desorber Solutions
4.3. Solution Pump Solutions
4.4. Alternative Working Fluid Pairs
4.5. Summary of Existing Solutions
5. Future Trends
- For the general system design, the ACHP with single-stage solution circuit has been used commercially. Nevertheless, there is still potential for further improvements, such as the optimized system control in case of varying operating conditions [18].
- To increase the application range and competitiveness of the ACHP, cost-effective and simple compressor solutions will be utilized. Besides using multistage oil-lubricated reciprocating compressors, the single-stage screw compressors with liquid injection and lubrication with the solution will be implemented as an alternative. In contrast to dry compression, the advantages of wet compression with reduced superheating and low discharge temperature can be beneficial [63]. In addition, the removal of the lubricating oil can lead to a reduction in the complexity and cost of the system. However, recent studies by Ahrens et al. (2019) [75,101] and Gudjonsdottir et al. (2019) [66] have indicated that suitable compressors are not yet commercially available and require further research and development. Insights and findings can be gained from related studies dealing with oil (Wu et al. (2017) [102]) or pure refrigerants as ammonia (Tian et al. (2017) [65]) and water (Wu et al. (2020) [5]).
- For the design and operation of absorber and desorber, there is a clear trend towards vertical PHE. This is often associated with factors such as compact design and cost-effective production. However, important factors for the efficiency, such as the liquid–vapor mixing and distribution, are often difficult to determine and thus challenging to predict for varying operating parameters [73]. The application of additive manufacturing techniques to produce plates and the liquid–vapor distribution may offer interesting possibilities. Solving the distribution challenge and being able to determine and predict the required parameters more accurately for the design and controlling of ACHP cycles, especially considering the desired high temperature operation, is an important goal of further research.
- In addition to the static height, a possible sub-cooling of the lean solution upstream of the inlet can result in a sustainable operation of the solution pump.
- For the use of alternative working fluid pairs in ACHP cycles, there is so far only little experimental experience apart from theoretical studies besides ammonia-water, as presented in Section 4.4. However, the use of alternative working fluid pairs is a promising solution.
6. Conclusions
- Interest in the ACHP system has grown in recent years and has been supported by the successful implementation of first commercial units.
- Many studies, both theoretical and experimental, focused on improving the achievable operating parameter and system efficiency to increase the competitiveness compared to VCHPs and conventional solutions for industrial high temperature applications.
- Various configurations of the ACHP system with special characteristics have been developed and studied. The ACHP with a single-stage solution circuit was most widely investigated and is the only configuration in commercial use today. With the aim of further optimization of the ACHP system, existing challenges for the main components such as compressor, absorber/desorber and solution pump were identified based on the conducted research.
- Compressors used so far have been positive displacement compressors such as reciprocating, screw and scroll. For the achievable parameters of the ACHP system, the compressor is a constraining component and associated with challenges, such as discharge temperature, lubrication, efficient and oil-free operation of the system. A variety of possible solutions to address these challenges, such as multi-stage compression with intercooling or liquid injection, were investigated.
- Different types and configurations of heat exchangers have been used. For the design and operation of absorber and desorber, a clear trend towards vertically arranged PHEs has emerged. However, there are still challenges associated with the optimal design to achieve good liquid–vapor distribution and achieving high overall heat transfer coefficients. The ability to determine and predict the parameters required for the design and control of absorber and desorber more accurately is an important goal in further disseminating ACHP technology for use in industrial applications.
- Various strategies to avoid cavitation in the solution pump have been successfully implemented and tested, thus this problem discussed in earlier literature was solved.
- In addition to ammonia-water, a variety of alternative working fluid pairs for use in ACHP systems have been investigated. Further research and development are required to evaluate the reported potential improvements in a practical application.
- Based on the conducted investigations as well as recent developments and solutions, the future trends for further research were defined for all identified challenges.
- For the increased use of ACHP systems in high temperature applications, future research should focus on the development of (oil-free) liquid-injected compressors and the efficient design and operation of the absorber and desorber.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ACHP | Absorption–compression heat pump |
CAS | Chemical Abstracts Service |
CFC | Chlorofluorocarbons |
COP | Coefficient of performance |
DAHX | vapor compression cycle with solution circuit and desorber/absorber heat exchange |
GHG | Greenhouse gas |
GHS | Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals |
GWP | Global warming potential |
HTHP | High temperature heat pump |
IHX | Internal heat exchanger |
MAK | Maximum workplace concentration |
ODP | Ozone depletion potential |
PHE | Plate heat exchanger |
VCHP | Vapor compression heat pump |
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Author (Location) | Year | Cap. [kW] | Tsource [°C] | Tsink [°C] | ∆Tm,lift [K] | COP [-] | Compressor Design | Absorber Design | Desorber Design | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ACHP with single-stage solution circuit | ||||||||||
Bercescu et al. (Romania) | 1983 | 15 | 24 | 59 | n/a | 4.9 | oil, recip, t-st | n/a | n/a | [45] |
Pop et al. (Romania) | 1983 | 4500 | 36 to 30 | 45 to 55 | 16.9 | 2.6 | dry, recip, s-st | Shell/tube horizontal | Shell/tube horizontal | [46,47] |
Mučić, Scheuermann (Germany) | 1984 | 160 | 60 to 45 | 25 to 78 | −5.6 | 11.3 | oil, recip, s-st | Shell/tube horizontal | Shell/tube horizontal | [48] |
Stokar, Trepp (Switzerland) | 1987 | 15 | 40 to 15 | 40 to 70 | 28.1 | 4.3 | dry, recip, s-st | Shell/tube vertical | Shell/tube vertical | [49] |
Mučić (Germany) | 1989 | 1000 | 95 to 95 (const.) | 115 to 115 (const.) | 20.0 | 9.1 | dry, screw, s-st | Shell/tube vertical | Shell/tube vertical | [50] |
Rane et al. (USA) | 1989 | 7 | 15 (avg.) | 45 (avg.) | n/a | 3.7 | dry, recip, t-st | Shell/tube vertical | Shell/tube vertical | [51] |
Baksaas, Grandum (Norway) | 1999 | 60 | 48 | 48 to 100 | n/a | 2.1 | oil, recip, t-st | Corrugated PHE | Corrugated PHE | [22] |
Mongey et al. (North Ireland) | 2001 | 13.5 | 42 to 27 | 42 to 57 | 15.2 | 3.7 | oil, recip, s-st | Corrugated PHE | Corrugated PHE | [52] |
FKW (Germany) | 2003 | 27 | 43 to 35 | 60 to 72 | 27.0 | 4.3 | oil, twin screw, s-st | Corrugated PHE | Corrugated PHE | [53] |
Risberg et al. (Norway) | 2004 | 300 | 50 to 15 | 50 to 85 | 36.9 | n/a | oil, recip, t-st | Corrugated PHE | Corrugated PHE | [23] |
Nordtvedt (Norway) | 2005 | 47 | 50 to 17 | 50 to 93 | 38.7 | 2.4 | oil, recip, t-st | Corrugated PHE | Corrugated PHE | [44] |
Nordtvedt et al. (Norway) | 2011 | 650 | 48 to 38 | 48 to 87 | 22.8 | 4.5 | oil, recip, t-st | Corrugated PHE | Corrugated PHE | [24] |
Kim et al. (Republic of Korea) | 2013 | 10 | 50 to 30 | 50 to 90 | 28.9 | 3.0 | oil, recip, t-st | Corrugated PHE | Corrugated PHE | [54] |
Jung et al. (Republic of Korea) | 2014 | 7.3 | 50 to 30 | 50 to 81 | 25.1 | 2.7 | oil, recip, s-st | Corrugated PHE | Corrugated PHE | [55] |
Markmann et al. (Germany) | 2019 | 40 | 59 to 49 | 50 to 60 | 1.0 | 2.5 | oil, twin screw, s-st | Corrugated PHE | Corrugated PHE | [56] |
Ahrens et al. (Norway) | 2021 | 940 | 67 to 60 | 73 to 95 | 20.1 | 5.9 | oil, recip, t-st | Corrugated PHE | Corrugated PHE | [25] |
Wet compression cycle | ||||||||||
Malewski (Germany) | 1988 | 500 | 35 | 60 to 80 | n/a | 4.4 | wet, screw, s-st | Shell/tube horizontal | Shell/tube horizontal | [57] |
Bergmann, Hivessy (Hungary) | 1990 | 1000 | 25 to 5 | 15 to 85 | 27.9 | 4.4 | wet, screw, s-st | Shell/tube horizontal | Shell/tube horizontal | [35] |
Torstensson, Nowacki (Sweden) | 1991 | 1.4 | 16 to 3 | 35 to 60 | 38.6 | 3.0C | wet, scroll, s-st | Tube/tube coaxial | Tube/tube coaxial | [58] |
Itard (Netherlands) | 1998 | 13 | 44 to 38 | 40 to 53 | 5.3 | 3.1 | wet, liquid ring, s-st | Plate-fin vertical | Plate-fin vertical | [59] |
Zaytsev (Netherlands) | 2003 | 18.9 | 70 to 65 | 76 to 92 | 16.3 | 1.4 | wet, twin screw, s-st | Shell/tube vertical | Shell/tube vertical | [60] |
ACHP with two-stage solution circuit | ||||||||||
Rane, Radermacher (USA) | 1991 | 4.2 | 4 to −5 | 96 to 104 | 100.5 | 1.0C | dry, recip, t-st | Shell/tube vertical | Shell/tube vertical | [39] |
ACHP with single circuit and desorber/absorber heat exchange (DAHX) | ||||||||||
Groll, Radermacher (USA) | 1994 | 5 | 0 to −6 | 58 to 74 | 68.7 | 0.9C | dry, recip, t-st | Shell/tube vertical | Shell/tube vertical | [42] |
Author (Location) | Year | Exp. | Refrigerant | GHS | Absorbent | GHS | Tmin/Tmax | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Inorganic Refrigerant | ||||||||
Åhlby, Hodgett (Sweden) | 1990 | NH3 (1) | | H2O (2)/LiBr (3) | | 0/200 | [84] | |
Chatzidakis, Rogdakis (Germany) | 1992 | NH3 (1) | | H2O (2)/LiBr (3) | | 0/200 | [85] | |
Tarique, Siddiqui (India) | 1999 | NH3 (1) | | NaSCN (4) | | −35/160 | [86] | |
Hannl (Austria) | 2015 | X | NH3 (1) | | LiNO3 (5) | | −40/200 | [87] |
Herold et al. (USA) | 1991 | H2O (2) | - | LiBr (3) | | 0/200 | [88] | |
Ansari et al. (India) | 2018 | H2O (2) | - | LiBr (3) | | 0/200 | [89] | |
Gudjonsdottir et al. (Netherlands) | 2017 | NH3 (1)/CO2 (6) | | H2O (2) | - | 0/200 | [90] | |
Groll, Kruse (Germany) | 1992 | X | CO2 (6) | | Acetone (7) | | −40/80 | [91] |
Moreira-da-Silva et al. (Spain) | 2019 | CO2 (6) | | Acetone (7) | | −40/80 | [92] | |
Aldás (Spain) | 2020 | CO2 (6) | | Acetone (7) | | −40/80 | [93] | |
Organic Refrigerant | ||||||||
Endo et al. (Japan) | 2007 | DME (8) | | MeOH (9) | | −30/200 | [94] | |
Kawada et al. (Japan) | 1991 | X | TFE (10) | | TEGDME (11) | | 75/200 | [95] |
Nogues et al. (Spain) | 1997 | TFE (10), MeOH (9) | | TEGDME (11) | | 65/200 | [96] | |
Bourouis et al. (Spain) | 2000 | TFE (6)/H2O (2) | | TEGDME (11) | | 75/200 | [97] | |
Mestra et al. (Spain) | 2003 | X | TFE (10), MeOH (9), | | PEGDME 500 (12) | n/s | 65/200 | [98] |
2005 | HFIP (13) | | [99] |
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Ahrens, M.U.; Loth, M.; Tolstorebrov, I.; Hafner, A.; Kabelac, S.; Wang, R.; Eikevik, T.M. Identification of Existing Challenges and Future Trends for the Utilization of Ammonia-Water Absorption–Compression Heat Pumps at High Temperature Operation. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 4635. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11104635
Ahrens MU, Loth M, Tolstorebrov I, Hafner A, Kabelac S, Wang R, Eikevik TM. Identification of Existing Challenges and Future Trends for the Utilization of Ammonia-Water Absorption–Compression Heat Pumps at High Temperature Operation. Applied Sciences. 2021; 11(10):4635. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11104635
Chicago/Turabian StyleAhrens, Marcel Ulrich, Maximilian Loth, Ignat Tolstorebrov, Armin Hafner, Stephan Kabelac, Ruzhu Wang, and Trygve Magne Eikevik. 2021. "Identification of Existing Challenges and Future Trends for the Utilization of Ammonia-Water Absorption–Compression Heat Pumps at High Temperature Operation" Applied Sciences 11, no. 10: 4635. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11104635