Next Article in Journal
mPrivacy: A Privacy Policy Engine and Safeguard Mechanism in Mobile Devices
Previous Article in Journal
Influence of Aeration Method on Gaseous Emissions and the Losses of the Carbon and Nitrogen during Cow Manure Composting
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Applied Sciences
Volume 11
Issue 24
10.3390/app112411640
applsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Effect of Chemical Activating Agent on the Properties of Activated Carbon from Sago Waste

by
Octolia Togibasa
1,*,
Mumfaijah Mumfaijah
1,
Yanti Kiding Allo
1,
Khaeriah Dahlan
1 and
Yane Oktovina Ansanay
2
1
Physics Study Program, Department of Physics, Universitas Cenderawasih, Jayapura 99358, Indonesia
2
Geophysical Engineering Study Program, Department of Physics, Universitas Cenderawasih, Jayapura 99358, Indonesia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11(24), 11640; https://doi.org/10.3390/app112411640
Submission received: 27 October 2021 / Revised: 30 November 2021 / Accepted: 3 December 2021 / Published: 8 December 2021
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The effect of chemical activators on the properties of activated carbon from sago waste was conducted in this study by using ZnCl2, H3PO4, KOH, and KMnO4 chemical solutions. The carbonized sago waste was added to each chemical solution, boiled at 85 °C for 4 h, and heated at 600 °C for 3 h. The porosity, microstructural, proximate, and surface chemistry analyses were carried out using nitrogen adsorption with employing the Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) method and the Barret-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) calculation, scanning electron microscopy by using energy dispersive spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometer, simultaneous thermogravimetric analysis system, and the Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The results showed that the activated carbon prepared using ZnCl2 acid had the highest specific surface area of 546.61 m2/g, while the KOH activating agent surpassed other chemicals in terms of a refined structure and morphology, with the lowest ash content of 10.90%. The surface chemistry study revealed that ZnCl2 and KOH activated carbon showed phenol and carboxylate groups. Hence, ZnCl2 acid was suggested as activating agents for micropore carbon, while KOH was favorable to producing a mesopore-activated carbon from sago waste.

1. Introduction

Activated carbon has an amorphous, fullerene-like structure, with a large and small amount of oxygen and hydrogen, respectively [1]. This structure leads to an increase in its surface area, a high degree of porosity [2,3], and a wide spectrum of oxygenated functional groups [4,5]. Activated carbon has attracted attention due to its large application and environmental benefits. Furthermore, the adsorption of heavy metals [6,7,8], organic compounds [9], dyes [10,11], CO2 capture [2,12,13], catalyst [14,15], ammonia, and methane storage [16,17,18], were some common applications. The use of activated carbons as materials for electrochemical double-layer capacitors (EDLC) has made them suitable for industrial applications [19,20,21].
Lignocellulosic precursors and biomass sources were the main raw materials for activated carbon production. However, the need for abundant, renewable, and low-cost raw material, has motivated many studies to explore materials used in production. The studies on activated carbon were the third-highest since 2005, after graphene and carbon nanotubes, related to carbon materials [22]. Several precursors were obtained from biomass, waste, various parts of plants, cotton stalk [6], peanut shell [7], nutshells [9], pineapple waste [11], oil palm shell [17], and coffee beans [19]. In addition, chemical and physical activation are the two most important methods that activate carbonaceous materials [22], though thermal activation [23] and microwave radiation [24] methods have also been reported. Other studies summarized several parameters in the manufacture of activated carbon [22,25,26], and chemical activation agent is an important key. These agents include zinc chloride (ZnCl2), potassium hydroxide (KOH), phosphoric acid (H3PO4), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Also, H2O2 [27], potassium carbonate (K2CO3) [28], CaCl2 [29], KMnO4 [30,31], formamide [32] and other acid salts [33] have been used as activating agents. The high rate of studies on activated carbons mentioned above promotes this study on the effect of activating agents on the properties of activated carbon.
Presently, sago waste is used as a raw material to produce activated carbon. It (Metroxylon sago) is an endemic plant in Indonesia, with approximately 1.2 million ha of sago forest, which is 50% of the total sago forest in the world. Indonesia has about 219,978 ha of sago starch production area by 2017, with a total production of 489,643 tons [34]. Furthermore, the plant is the main source of carbohydrates for coastal communities in eastern Indonesia, and it is included in local food commodities. On the other hand, behind the high production of sago in Indonesia, its waste causes environmental pollution [35]. However, sago waste is rich in lignocellulosic fibers, namely cellulose 36.2%, hemicellulose 15.18%, and lignin 12.34% [36,37], making them suitable as activated carbon raw material.
The fabrication of activated carbon using sago as its raw material has been studied previously, either from its waste [31,38,39,40,41], palm bark [42,43], or pulp hydrogel [44]. In addition, the activated carbon has been synthesized using several chemical activating agents, which include H2SO4, ZnCl2, KOH, and KMnO4, with a variety of chemical concentrations, activation temperature conditions, and agitation time. However, none of these studies focused on the effect of activator variations. Therefore, this study aims to determine the effect of activators on the properties of activated carbon from sago waste. In this study, ZnCl2 and H3PO4 were used as a chemical acid activator, while KOH and KMnO4 as base chemical treatments. Then, the porosity, microstructural, proximate, and surface chemistry analyses helped to understand the properties of the activated carbon from sago waste and its prospective application. In addition, this study also aims to elevate the potentials of sago waste from the local community consumptions to a higher economic value.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Material Preparations

For the purpose of this study, sago waste was extracted from the remains of starch production, traditionally practiced by the community in Maribu Village, Jayapura Regency, Papua Province, Indonesia was used. The chemical solution KOH, KMnO4, ZnCl2, and H3PO4 were used as activating agents, with a concentration of 20% (w/v) each, and pH values of 12.1, 9.1, 4.2, and 2.2, respectively. Other supporting materials include HCl 1 M, distilled water, and filter paper. The main instruments for the activation process consisted of a digital pH sensor (PASCO PS-2102), a test sieve (B-ONE size 100 mesh), a magnetic stirrer (DLAB MS-H280-Pro), an electronic balance (OHAUS SP202 AM), a digital oven (B-ONE OV-45), and a muffle furnace (FNC-7.2).

2.2. Activated Carbon Fabrication

The sago waste raw material was washed and dried using clean water and oven, respectively, at 90 °C for 2 h. Furthermore, the dried precursor was carbonized at 400 °C for 2 h using a furnace. The carbon sago waste was crushed and sieved to obtain a fine carbon bulk. Then 5 g of the prepared carbon waste sago was added to a 25 mL chemical solution, for each activating agent. The mixed solutions were boiled at 85 °C for 4 h to enhance the activation process and then filtered. The precipitate was heated at 600 °C for 3 h [45]. Subsequently, the carbon that was activated using acid treatment (ZnCl2 and H3PO4) was repeatedly washed with warm distilled water (70 °C) until a constant pH of 7 was achieved [41], whereas the carbon that was activated using base treatment (KOH and KMnO4) was added to 3 mL of 0.1 M HCl and washed with warm distilled water [46], with repeated washes until a neutral pH was attained. The samples were dried in an oven at 110 °C for 2 h to obtain the activated carbon products. In the end, the final products were measured to calculate the yield, by the following equation [45]:
Y i e l d   ( % ) = F i n a l   w e i g h t   o f   a c t i v a t e d   c a r b o n I n i t i a l   w e i g h t   o f   d r i e d   s a g o   w a s t e

2.3. Activated Carbon Characterization

The porous characteristic was determined by nitrogen adsorption using Quantachrome Nova 4200e instrument. Also, the Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) method was used to characterize specific surface areas, together with the Barret-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) calculation to predict the pore volume. The scanning electron microscope (Jeol JSM IT 200) with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) was used to analyze the morphology and the element composition. Meanwhile, the X-ray diffraction (SHIMADZU XRD-7000) systems were used to identify the microcrystalline structure of the samples. Furthermore, the thermal decomposition behavior was investigated by Simultaneous Thermogravimetric-Differential Thermal-Differential Scanning Calorimetry Analysis (TGA-DTA-DSC) using NEXTA STA (Hitachi STA200RV) system. Meanwhile, the Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy (The PerkinElmer spectrum IR 10.6.1) was used to determine the functional groups in the activated carbon materials.

3. Results

3.1. Porous Properties

Figure 1 illustrates the effect of the chemical activating agents on the adsorption-desorption isotherms of activated carbon from sago waste. The activated carbon prepared with acid activating agents (ZnCl2 and H3PO4) indicated a Type I isotherm according to the IUPAC classification [47]. This is evidenced by a sharp increase in nitrogen adsorption at low pressures, followed by a long plateau region at higher pressures, indicating a micro-porosity behavior. However, a narrow hysteresis can be seen due to the existence of mesopores [45]. Conversely, the activated carbon prepared with base treatment (KOH and KMnO4) indicated a Type IV or Type II isotherm with a clear hysteresis at high pressures. Consequently, this indicates a progressive development of mesopores, as well as a distribution of pore sizes.
Table 1 depicts the porous properties of activated carbon from sago waste prepared using various chemical activating agents. It revealed that the mesopore volume (VMes.) of activated carbon prepared with base treatment (45.7% and 37.7%) was higher than those treated with acid (33.3% and 25.2%). These results prove that the carbon with acid treatment contracts microporosity, while those with base treatment show mesoporosity behavior. However, the carbon with acid treatment has a higher total pore volume and nitrogen adsorbed compared to those with base treatment, resulting in a larger pore development due to an increase in char burn-off, confirmed by a lower yield value [3].

3.2. Structural Properties

The structural properties of the activated carbon were examined through its crystalline structure and morphology images. Figure 2 shows the X-ray diffraction profiles of the activated carbons from sago waste prepared with various activating agents. The carbon samples demonstrated broad diffraction peaks at around 2θ of 23°, while those prepared with KOH activating agent showed slight peaks at around 2θ of 43°, with no sharp peaks. Furthermore, the two broad bands centered around 2θ of 23° and 43° were associated with the diffraction of the 002 and 100/101 planes, respectively [48]. In addition, the washing after the activation is an important process, in order to avoid residue from the activating agent solution, which prompts additional peaks [41].
Figure 3 shows morphology images taken from scanning electron microscopy with 10,000× magnification. All samples show a combination of micropores and mesopores, verified the porosity properties that were previously analyzed. Figure 3b shows that activated carbon from the ZnCl2 treatment has more dominant micropores, as confirmed by the lowest VMes./VMic. of 33.78%. The mesopore is clearly seen in Figure 3a,c as the VMes./VMic. value increase for H3PO4 (50.01%) and KMnO4 (60.53%). Furthermore, the activated carbon from the KOH treatment from Figure 3d has more heterogeneous pores, yielding the highest VMes./VMic. value of 84.16%. The acquired energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) provides elemental composition data for each sample, which are summarized in Table 2. It can be seen that the elemental composition for each activator agent was only less than three percent, even almost undetectable for KMnO4 and KOH. This confirmed that the sample washing process has been successful.

3.3. Thermal Decomposition

Figure 4a shows thermogravimetric curves in activated carbons from sago waste, indicating gradual mass loss during the thermal investigation. Meanwhile, Table 3 depicts the moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, and ash percentage in reference to the curves. The samples showed three mass loss steps, where the first step below 70 °C indicated mass losses up to 17% due to the physically adsorbed water on the material, during storage. The decomposition product of the second mass loss steps, in the period between 100 to 400 °C, are assigned to the surface groups that formed during the activation process. Furthermore, the third mass loss steps at high temperatures are assigned to carbon skeleton decomposition. Rapid weight loss at temperatures of 400 to 600 °C indicated the typical activated carbon behavior, due to the formation of ash as a result of devolatilization [49,50]. However, the carbon prepared with KOH activating agent showed the lowest moisture, ash, and the highest fixed carbon contents of 0.92 %, 10.90 %, and 43.78, respectively. The low moisture content may be the reason for the low total pore volume of the sample prepared with KOH [8]. In addition, the activated carbon samples prepared from KOH have unique decomposition profiles with intense exothermic peaks from the thermogravimetric derivative curves. This is related to organic matter thermal decomposition, which means the last mass loss step may be related to the carbon skeleton of the sample, leading to low ash content.

3.4. Surface Groups

Figure 5 illustrates the Fourier-transform infrared spectra of activated carbon from sago waste with various activating agents, and Table 4 shows the list of Fourier-transform infrared peaks and their assignments. There is a broad absorption around wavenumber 3650–2500 cm−1 for ZnCl2 and KOH activated carbon, indicating O-H bonds. This may be due to the occurrence of phenol and carboxylate functional groups [51]. The pattern was confirmed by the presence of C-O stretching vibration of phenol structure at 1072 cm−1, and 1135 cm−1 for ZnCl2 and KOH activated carbon, respectively. However, due to the absence of O-H bonds in H3PO4 and KMnO4 activated carbon, the prominent band of the C-O functional group was interpreted as ether at wavenumber 1164 cm−1 and 1163 cm−1, respectively [52]. In addition, the samples exhibited a broad absorption band in the area 1555–1540 cm−1, indicating a stretching vibration of the C=C aromatic ring structure [53]. In the fingerprint area, there were several absorption peaks assigned to C-H bending from the alkanes group at a wavenumber less than 1000 cm−1. Furthermore, the presence of functional groups on the carbon of four different activating agents were also confirmed, this includes O-H, C=C, C-O, and C-H groups, indicating hydroxyl, aromatic, carboxyl, and alkane, respectively [52].

4. Discussion

There is a strong development of porosity on activation of a lignocellulosic precursor with the chemical agents [54]. Consequently, a degree of activation produces the maximum volumes of micropores, namely include 0.101, 0.152, 0.225, and 0.194 cm3/g for KOH, KMnO4, ZnCl2, and H3PO4, respectively. Treatment with ZnCl2 acid impregnation produces activated carbon with the highest surface area of 546.61 m2/g, the strong base KOH successfully fabricated the fined structure and morphology, with the highest fixed carbon and the lowest ash content of 43.78% and 10.90%, respectively. KMnO4 and H3PO4 activating agents showed poor performance with a low fixed carbon value of 2.56% and 14.02%, and a high moisture content of 15.20% and 17.04%, respectively.
The morphology images showed that ash was dominant over pores, and the carbon prepared from the KMnO4 activating agents had no peak in the X-ray diffraction pattern. Furthermore, the KMnO4 impregnation damaged the carbon structure, as indicated by the absence of the amorphous phase of carbon. This result can be confirmed from the element composition results, where KMnO4 activated carbon has a very small carbon composition of 57.06 %. This may yield that the KMnO4 is not effective enough to activate sago waste carbon. The surface chemistry was influenced by the chemical activating agent. Both ZnCl2 and KOH activated carbon revealed phenol and carboxylate groups, while the H3PO4 and KMnO4 showed vibration from the ether group. The carbon prepared from KOH also demonstrated an intense aromatic ring, due to acid washing, and thorough rinsing with distilled water [55].
The acid-activating agents tend to develop more micropore, while the base treatment develops fine mesopore-activated carbons. Generally, activated carbon has a pore structure in the form of microporous, mesoporous, and macroporous. The activated microporous carbon is more effective against pollutants in the form of gas, mesoporous carbon is effective for liquid, while macroporous carbon is not efficient for both forms [56]. The pore structure of activated carbon characteristics is highly important, it may direct potential application of activated carbon from sago waste in the future.
The commercial-grade activated carbon has a surface value between 500–1500 m2/g [57]. Thus, the highest value obtained from this study can be categorized into commercial activated carbon. Therefore, this study suggested ZnCl2 and KOH as suitable activators for sago waste precursor material. Further study on the effect of activation temperature and contact time on ZnCl2 and KOH activators may elevate the pore size of the activated carbon [55].

5. Conclusions

This study demonstrates the effect of chemical activating agents on the activated carbon from sago waste. This study suggests ZnCl2 and KOH as favorable activating agents among others. The ZnCl2 acid activating agent surpassed other chemical activators in terms of a higher specific surface area of 546.61 m2/g, with a relatively high carbon content of 40.90%. The micropore characteristic suggests that this material has potential gaseous pollutant adsorbent application. The base KOH activating agent outperformed other chemicals in terms of a mesopore carbon, with a fined structure and morphology, with the lowest ash content of 10.90%. Heavy metal adsorbent from polluted liquid can be its potential application.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, O.T., K.D. and Y.O.A.; methodology, O.T. and Y.K.A.; software, O.T.; validation, Y.K.A. and M.M.; formal analysis, M.M.; investigation, M.M.; resources, O.T.; data curation, O.T.; writing—original draft preparation, O.T., K.D. and Y.O.A.; writing—review and editing, O.T., K.D. and Y.O.A.; visualization, Y.K.A. and M.M.; supervision, O.T.; project administration, Y.K.A. and M.M.; funding acquisition, O.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was fully funded by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia, through Prominent Fundamental Research of Higher Education (Penelitian Dasar Unggulan Perguruan Tinggi) Grant Year 2021, Contract number: 02/UN20.2.1/PG/DRPM/2021.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the facilities, scientific and technical support from Advanced Characterization Laboratories Serpong, National Research, and Innovation Institute through E-Layanan Sains, Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional; Central Laboratory for Research and Services, Diponegoro University; and Biomaterial Research Laboratory, Universitas Cenderawasih.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. In addition, the funders had no role in the study design including collection, analyses, or data interpretation, and the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

References

  1. Blankenship, T.S., II; Balahmar, N.; Mokaya, R. Oxygen-rich microporous carbons with exceptional hydrogen storage capacity. Nat. Commun. 2017, 8, 1545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  2. Shafeeyan, M.S.; Daud, W.M.A.W.; Houshmand, A.; Shamiri, A. A review on surface modification of activated carbon for carbon dioxide adsorption. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 2010, 89, 143–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Lawtae, P.; Tangsathitkulchai, C. A New Approach for Controlling Mesoporosity in Activated Carbon by the Consecutive Process of Air Oxidation, Thermal Destruction of Surface Functional Groups, and Carbon Activation (the OTA Method). Molecules 2021, 26, 2758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Demiral, I.; Samdan, C.; Demiral, H. Enrichment of the surface functional groups of activated carbon by modification method. Surf. Interfaces. 2021, 22, 100873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Togibasa, T.; Ansanay, Y.O.; Dahlan, K.; Erari, M. Identification of surface functional group on activated carbon from waste sago. J. Phys. Theor-Appl. 2021, 5, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Li, K.; Zheng, Z.; Li, Y. Characterization and lead adsorption properties of activated carbons prepared from cotton stalk by one-step H3PO4 activation. J. Hazard. Mater. 2010, 181, 440–447. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. AL-Othman, Z.A.; Ali, R.; Naushad, M. Hexavalent chromium removal from aqueous medium by activated carbon prepared from peanut shell: Adsorption kinetics, equilibrium, and thermodynamic studies. Chem. Eng. J. 2012, 184, 238–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Gueye, M.; Richardson, Y.; Kafack, F.T.; Blin, J. High efficiency activated carbons from African biomass residues for the removal of chromium (VI) from wastewater. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2014, 2, 273–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Toles, C.A.; Marshall, W.E.; Johns, M.M. Granular activated carbons from nutshells for the uptake of metals and organic compounds. Carbon 1997, 35, 1407–1414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Liu, R.L.; Liu, Y.; Zhou, X.Y.; Zhang, Z.Q.; Zhang, J.; Dang, F.Q. Biomass-derived highly porous functional carbon fabricated by using a free-standing template for efficient removal of methylene blue. Bioresour. Technol. 2014, 154, 138–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Mahamad, M.N.; Zaini, M.A.A.; Zakaria, Z.A. Preparation and characterization of activated carbon from pineapple waste biomass for dye removal. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2015, 102, 274–280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Djeridi, W.; Ben Mansour, N.; Ouederni, A.; Llewellyn, P.L.; El Mir, L. Influence of the raw material and nickel oxide on the CH4 capture capacity behaviors of microporous carbon. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2015, 40, 13690–13701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. González, A.S.; Plaza, M.G.; Rubiera, F.; Pevida, C. Sustainable biomass-based carbon adsorbents for post-combustion CO2 capture. Chem. Eng. J. 2013, 230, 456–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  14. Petkovic, L.M.; Ginosar, D.M.; Rollins, H.W.; Burch, K.C.; Deiana, C.; Silva, H.S.; Sardella, M.F.; Granados, D. Activated carbon catalysts for the production of hydrogen via the sulfur-iodine thermochemical water splitting cycle. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2009, 34, 4057–4064. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Ansanay, Y.; Kolar, P.; Sharma-Shivappa, R.; Cheng, J.; Arellano, C. Pretreatment of Switchgrass for Production of Glucose via Sulfonic Acid-Impregnated Activated Carbon. Processes 2021, 9, 504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Sreńscek-Nazzal, J.; Kamińska, W.; Michalkiewicz, B.; Koren, Z.C. Production, characterization and methane storage potential of KOH-activated carbon from sugarcane molasses. Ind. Crops. Prod. 2013, 47, 153–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Arami-Niya, A.; Daud, W.M.A.W.; Mjalli, F.S. Using granular activated carbon prepared from oil palm shell by ZnCl2 and physical activation for methane adsorption. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 2010, 89, 197–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Liu, B.; Wang, W.; Wang, N.; Au, C.T. Preparation of activated carbon with high surface area for high-capacity methane storage. J. Energy. Chem. 2014, 23, 662–668. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Rufford, T.E.; Hulicova-Jurcakova, D.; Zhu, Z.; Lu, G.Q. Nanoporous carbon electrode from waste coffee beans for high performance supercapacitors. Electrochem. Commun. 2008, 10, 1594–1597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Olivares-Marín, M.; Fernández, J.A.; Lázaro, M.J.; Fernández-González, C.; Macías-García, A.; Gómez-Serrano, V.; Stoeckli, F.; Centeno, T.A. Cherry stones as precursor of activated carbons for supercapacitors. Mater. Chem. Phys. 2009, 114, 323–327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  21. Xu, B.; Chen, Y.; Wei, G.; Cao, G.; Zhang, H.; Yang, Y. Activated carbon with high capacitance prepared by NaOH activation for supercapacitors. Mater. Chem. Phys. 2010, 124, 504–509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. González-García, P. Activated carbon from lignocellulosic precursors: A review of the synthesis methods, characterization techniques, and applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 82, 1393–1414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Zhao, Y.; Fang, F.; Xiao, H.M.; Feng, Q.P.; Xiong, L.Y.; Fu, S.Y. Preparation of pore-size controllable activated carbon fibers from bamboo fibers with superior performance for xenon storage. Chem. Eng. J. 2015, 270, 528–534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Foo, K.Y.; Hameed, B.H. Coconut husk derived activated carbon via microwave-induced activation: Effects of activation agents, preparation parameters, and adsorption performance. Chem. Eng. J. 2012, 184, 57–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Tadda, M.A.; Ahsan, A.; Shitu, A.; ElSergany, M.; Arunkumar, T.; Jose, B.; Razzaque, M.A.; Daud, N.N.N. A review on activated carbon: Process, application and prospects. J. Adv. Civ. Eng. Pract. Res. 2016, 2, 7–13. [Google Scholar]
  26. Bhatnagar, A.; Hogland, W.; Marques, M.; Sillanpää, M. An overview of the modification methods of activated carbon for its water treatment applications. Chem. Eng. J. 2013, 219, 499–511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Ncibi, M.C.; Ranguin, R.; Pintor, M.J.; Jeanne-rose, V.; Sillanpää, M.; Gaspard, S. Preparation and characterization of chemically activated carbons derived from Mediterranean Posidonia oceanica (L.) fibres. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 2014, 109, 205–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Galhetas, M.; Mestre, A.S.; Pinto, M.L.; Gulyurtlu, I.; Lopes, H.; Carvalho, A.P. Chars from gasification of coal and pine activated with K2CO3: Acetaminophen and caffeine adsorption from aqueous solutions. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2014, 433, 94–103. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  29. da Silva Lacerda, V.; López-Sotelo, J.B.; Correa-Guimarães, A.; Hernández-Navarro, S.; Sánchez-Báscones, M.; Navas-Gracia, L.M.; Martín-Ramos, P.; Martín-Gil, J. Rhodamine B removal with activated carbons obtained from lignocellulosic waste. J. Environ. Manag. 2015, 155, 67–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  30. Rathnayake, D.; Korotta-Gamage, S.M.; Kastl, G.; Sathasivan, A. Effect of KMnO4 treatment of granular activated carbon on the removal of natural organic matter. Desalin. Water Treat. 2017, 71, 201–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Qanytah; Syamsu, K.; Fahma, F.; Pari, G. Characterization of ball-milled sago pith waste-based activated carbon treated with KOH and KMnO4 as activating agent. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2020, 935, 012043. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Cossarutto, L.; Zimny, T.; Kaczmarczyk, J.; Siemieniewska, T.; Bimer, J.; Weber, J.V. Transport and sorption of water vapour in activated carbons. Carbon 2001, 39, 2339–2346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Ramírez-Montoya, L.A.; Hernández-Montoya, V.; Montes-Morán, M.A.; Cervantes, F.J. Correlation between mesopore volume of carbon supports and the immobilization of laccase from Trametes versicolor for the decolorization of Acid Orange 7. J. Environ. Manag. 2015, 162, 206–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Jong, F.S.; Widjono, A. Sagu: Potensi Besar Pertanian Indonesia. Iptek Tanaman Pangan. 2007, 2, 54–65. (In Indonesia) [Google Scholar]
  35. Rauf, A.W.; Lestari, M.S. Pemanfaatan Komoditas Pangan Lokal Sebagai Sumber Pangan Alternatif di Papua. J. Litbang Pertan. 2009, 28, 54–62. (In Indonesia) [Google Scholar]
  36. Sangadji, I.; Parakkasi, A.; Wiryawan, K.G.; Haryanto, B. Perubahan Nilai Nutrisi Ampas Sagu selam pada Fase Pertumbuhan Jamur Tiram Putih (Pleurotus ostreatus) yang berbeda. J. Ilmu Ternak. 2008, 8, 31–34, (In Bahasa Indonesia). [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Lai, J.C.; Rahman, W.A.W.A.; Toh, W.Y. Characterisation of sago pith waste and its composites. Ind. Crops Prod. 2013, 45, 319–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Kadirvelu, K.; Kavipriya, M.; Karthika, C.; Vennilamani, N.; Pattabhi, S. Mercury (II) adsorption by activated carbon made from sago waste. Carbon 2004, 42, 745–752. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Bernard, R.; Ahmed, O.H.; Majid, N.M.A. Utilization of activated carbon produced from Sago hampas (Metroxylon sagu) to reduce ammonia loss from urea. Int. J. Phys. Sci. 2011, 6, 6140–6146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Taer, E.; Afrianda, A.; Apriwandi; Taslim, R.; Agustino, A.; Awitdrus; Farma, R. Production of Activated Carbon Electrodes from Sago Waste and its application for an Electrochemical Double-Layer Capacitor. Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. 2018, 13, 10688–10699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Allo, Y.K.; Sudarmono; Togibasa, O. Synthesis and Characterization of Activated Carbon from Sago Waste (Metroxylon sagu) with ZnCl2 Activation and HNO3 Modification. J. Ind. Chem. Soc. 2019, 2, 48–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Erabee, I.K.; Ahsan, A.; Nik Daud, N.N.; Idrus, S.; Shams, S.; Md Din, M.F.; Rezania, S. Manufacture of low-cost activated carbon using sago palm bark and date pits by physiochemical activation. BioRes 2017, 12, 1916–1923. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  43. Erabee, I.K.; Ahsan, A.; Zularisam, A.W.; Idrus, S.; Daud, N.N.N.; Arunkumar, T.; Sathyamurthy, R.; Eid Al-Rawajfeh, A. A New Activated Carbon Prepared from Sago Palm Bark through Physiochemical Activated Process with Zinc Chloride. Eng. J. 2017, 21, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Dahlan, N.A.; Ng, S.L.; Pushpamalar, J. Adsorption of methylene blue onto powdered activated carbon immobilized in a carboxymethyl sago pulp hydrogel. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016, 134, 44271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Demiral, İ.; Aydın Şamdan, C.; Demiral, H. Production and characterization of activated carbons from pumpkin seed shell by chemical activation with ZnCl2. Desalin. Water Treat. 2015, 57, 2446–2454. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Mistar, E.M.; Alfatah, T.; Supardan, M.D. Synthesis and characterization of activated carbon from Bambusa vulgaris striata using two-step KOH activation. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2020, 9, 6278–6286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Sing, K.S.W.; Williams, R.T. Physisorption hysteresis loops and the characterization of nonporous materials. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol. 2004, 22, 773–782. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Girgis, B.S.; Temerk, Y.M.; Gadelrab, M.M.; Abdullah, I.D. X-ray Diffraction Patterns of Activated Carbons Prepared under Various Conditions. Carbon Lett. 2007, 8, 95–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  49. Suhdi; Wang, S.-C. Fine Activated Carbon from Rubber Fruit Shell Prepared by Using ZnCl2 and KOH Activation. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3994. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Craik, S.A.; Gray, M.R.; Hrudey, S.E.; Fedorak, P.M. Thermogravtmetric determination of biomass on activated carbon. Environ. Technol. 1991, 12, 489–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Dąbrowski, A.; Podkościelny, P.; Hubicki, Z.; Barczak, M. Adsorption of phenolic compounds by activated carbon—A critical review. Chemosphere 2005, 58, 1049–1070. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Jurgis, B.; Maryte, D. Investigation of the functional groups on the surface of activated carbons. J. Serb. Chem. Soc. 2004, 69, 363–375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Paredes-Doig, A.L.; Sun-Kou, M.D.R.; Picasso-Escobar, G.; Cannata, J.L. A Study of the Adsorption of Aromatic Compounds Using Activated Carbons Prepared from Chestnut Shell. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol. 2014, 32, 165–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Molina-Sabio, M.; Rodríguez-Reinoso, F. Role of chemical activation in the development of carbon porosity. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2004, 241, 15–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Lua, A.C.; Yang, T. Effect of activation temperature on the textural and chemical properties of potassium hydroxide activated carbon prepared from pistachio-nut shell. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2004, 274, 594–601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  56. Danish, M.; Ahmad, T. A review on utilization of wood biomass as a sustainable precursor for activated carbon production and application. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 87, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Saleem, J.; Shahid, U.; Hijab, M.; Mackey, H.; McKay, G. Production and applications of activated carbons as adsorbents from olive stones. Biomass Conv. Bioref. 2019, 9, 775–802. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Applsci 11 11640 g001 550
Figure 1. Effect on chemical activating agent on the adsorption-desorption isotherms of activated carbon from sago waste.
Figure 1. Effect on chemical activating agent on the adsorption-desorption isotherms of activated carbon from sago waste.
Applsci 11 11640 g001
Applsci 11 11640 g002 550
Figure 2. X-ray diffraction patterns of activated carbons from sago waste prepared using various chemical activating agents.
Figure 2. X-ray diffraction patterns of activated carbons from sago waste prepared using various chemical activating agents.
Applsci 11 11640 g002
Applsci 11 11640 g003 550
Figure 3. Scanning electron micrographs (10,000×) of activated carbons from sago waste prepared using (a) H3PO4, (b) ZnCl2, (c) KMnO4, and (d) KOH. (Bar length = 1 μm).
Figure 3. Scanning electron micrographs (10,000×) of activated carbons from sago waste prepared using (a) H3PO4, (b) ZnCl2, (c) KMnO4, and (d) KOH. (Bar length = 1 μm).
Applsci 11 11640 g003
Applsci 11 11640 g004 550
Figure 4. (a) Thermogravimetric and (b) thermogravimetric derivative curves for activated carbons from sago waste prepared using various chemical activating agents.
Figure 4. (a) Thermogravimetric and (b) thermogravimetric derivative curves for activated carbons from sago waste prepared using various chemical activating agents.
Applsci 11 11640 g004
Applsci 11 11640 g005 550
Figure 5. The Fourier-transform infrared spectra of activated carbons from sago prepared using various chemical activating agents.
Figure 5. The Fourier-transform infrared spectra of activated carbons from sago prepared using various chemical activating agents.
Applsci 11 11640 g005
Table
Table 1. Porous properties of activated carbons from sago waste prepared using various chemical activating agents.
Table 1. Porous properties of activated carbons from sago waste prepared using various chemical activating agents.
Activating AgentVMic.VMes.VTotal.VMes./VMic.Surface AreaAverage Pore DiameterYield
(cm3/g) (%)(cm3/g) (%)(cm3/g) (%)(m2/g)(nm)(%)
H3PO40.194 (66.7)0.097 (33.3)0.29150.01480.234.2122.39
ZnCl20.225 (74.8)0.076 (25.2)0.30133.78546.613.3223.34
KMnO40.152 (62.3)0.092 (37.7)0.24460.53274.924.3029.98
KOH0.101 (54.3)0.085 (45.7)0.18684.16374.035.1230.5
Table
Table 2. Elemental composition of activated carbons from sago waste prepared using various chemical activating agents.
Table 2. Elemental composition of activated carbons from sago waste prepared using various chemical activating agents.
ElementMass (%)
H3PO4ZnCl2KMnO4KOH
C75.88 ± 0.0576.52 ± 0.0357.06 ± 0.0581.30 ± 0.04
O21.28 ± 0.0721.56 ± 0.0542.93 ± 0.1018.70 ± 0.07
P2.84 ± 0.01---
Zn-0.09 ± 0.00--
Cl-1.83 ± 0.02--
K--0.01 ± 0.01not detected
Mn--not detected-
Table
Table 3. Proximate analyses of activated carbons from sago waste prepared using various chemical activating agents.
Table 3. Proximate analyses of activated carbons from sago waste prepared using various chemical activating agents.
Activating AgentProximate Analysis (Weight %)
MoistureVolatile MatterFixed CarbonAsh
H3PO415.2052.642.5629.60
ZnCl213.6048.9040.9023.80
KMnO417.0442.9214.0226.02
KOH0.9244.4043.7810.90
Table
Table 4. The Fourier-transform infrared peaks identification of activated carbons from sago prepared using various chemical activating agents.
Table 4. The Fourier-transform infrared peaks identification of activated carbons from sago prepared using various chemical activating agents.
Wavenumber (cm−1)Assignment
H3PO4ZnCl2KMnO4KOH
-2660-2660 ν (O-H) carboxylates group
1554155415461553 ν (C=C) aromatic group
1164-1163- ν (C-O) ether group
-1072-1135 ν (C-O) phenol group
673; 486890; 575674; 486- ν (C-H) akanes group
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Togibasa, O.; Mumfaijah, M.; Allo, Y.K.; Dahlan, K.; Ansanay, Y.O. The Effect of Chemical Activating Agent on the Properties of Activated Carbon from Sago Waste. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11640. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112411640

AMA Style

Togibasa O, Mumfaijah M, Allo YK, Dahlan K, Ansanay YO. The Effect of Chemical Activating Agent on the Properties of Activated Carbon from Sago Waste. Applied Sciences. 2021; 11(24):11640. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112411640

Chicago/Turabian Style

Togibasa, Octolia, Mumfaijah Mumfaijah, Yanti Kiding Allo, Khaeriah Dahlan, and Yane Oktovina Ansanay. 2021. "The Effect of Chemical Activating Agent on the Properties of Activated Carbon from Sago Waste" Applied Sciences 11, no. 24: 11640. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112411640

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop