Design and Diagnostics of High-Precision Accelerator Neutrino Beams
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Neutrino beams with unprecedented precision on for the measurement of the and cross sections. These data are essential for DUNE and HK because long-baseline experiments study the oscillation of into and its CP-conjugate . They thus need an exquisite precision in and .
- Cross sections for the study of the disappearance channel (A disappearance channel is a oscillation, where the number of observed is smaller that the at the source because some of them have changed flavor. An appearance channel is a oscillation where a new flavor appears into the detector.) and in long-baseline experiments. This measurement is essential to determine the mixing parameters and must be combined with the above-mentioned appearance channels (and ) to disentangle effects due to CP violation from effects due to the neutrino mass hierarchy and (if any) deviations from the Standard Model [11]. In this case, a 1% level measurement of and is mandatory.
- The knowledge of the absolute flux is less critical for long-baseline oscillation experiments than for short-baseline cross section experiments because DUNE and HK use ancillary detectors (“Near Detector”, ND) located near the source to estimate the incoming rate of neutrinos. At the same time, the absolute fluxes and must be known with <5% precision because the Near Detector samples a flux that is not exactly the same as the flux reaching the “Far Detector” (FD), which is located far from the source and designed to observe the oscillations. The imperfections in the flux cancellation arising by the ND-versus-FD comparison cannot be neglected any more in modern facilities. Similar considerations hold for the size of the wrong-flavor contamination (e.g., at the source) that can pollute the measurement at the FD.
2. Accelerator Neutrino Beams
2.1. Narrow and Wide-Band Conventional Beams
2.2. Non-Conventional Neutrino Beams
2.3. Neutrino Production and Hadronic Cross-Sections
2.4. Decay Volume
3. Extraction and Monitoring of Primary Protons
- In the fast extraction, a kicker magnet is used to extract all protons stored in the machine in a time shorter than a machine revolution period. Such time is typically in the – range. According to the experimental requirements, the protons can be shared into several macro-pulses. These pulses always have a fine structure that corresponds to the proton bunches produced by the Radio Frequency (RF) cavities of the machine.
- The slow extraction is driven by an unstable resonant motion of the particles in the transverse phase space, which is used to continuously spill the beam out of the machine over a long time (up to several seconds). This instability is controlled by acting on the machine optics (e.g., “tune”) and non-linear elements (e.g., sextupoles and/or octupoles).
- The total proton intensity is typically measured with Beam Current Transformers (BCT), non-destructive inductive devices that provide an absolute measurement of the total beam charge. Many variants are available for different types of beams, as their performance is strongly dependent on the spill length and instantaneous beam current [66,67,68,69].
- Another important class of devices is the Secondary Emission Monitors (SEM). They can be used for different applications and consist of thin, metallic foils that are crossed by the beam to measure the emitted charge. When their signal is time-sampled, they can be used to measure the beam intensity profile during the extraction (Figure 3). SEM that are made up of several ribbons can be used to measure the transverse beam profile. These devices can provide a measurement of the absolute beam intensity, too. However, their absolute calibration is prone to subtle systematic effects like charge emission due to activation [70]. SEM are particularly useful with -long slow extracted spills, which are difficult to measure with a BCT. Many recent developments have shown performance improvements and possible alternatives, as, for instance, the graphite-based profile monitor at J-PARC [71] and the Cherenkov detector for proton Flux Measurments (CpFM) tested at the SPS [72,73,74]. Other commonly used devices for beam profile measurements are the Optical Transition Radiation (OTR) screens. These are particularly convenient for ultra-relativistic beams, where the particles crossing a thin foil emit transition radiation, due to the change of medium, that can be recorded by light detectors.
- Beam Position Monitors (BPM) are a class of devices used to measure the transverse position of the beam inside the vacuum chamber or in air [75]. They are non-destructive devices composed of a set of two or four electrodes, which act through capacitive pick-up. Because of this, they require short pulses or bunched beams: they are often replaced by SEM or OTR screens in slow-extracted beams [70], or paired to them for increased reliability [76].
- Beam Loss Monitors (BLM) are crucial machine-protection elements. They measure beam losses, i.e., showers originated from the beam hitting or scraping a beamline element, and provide feedback to the control system. BLM are available in several types, but the most common in high-energy machines are based on ionization chambers [77] or proportional counters because of radiation hardness constraints. In slow extractions, BLM are the ideal tool to evaluate the effectiveness of loss-reduction techniques.
4. Target
5. Hadron Yields
- General purpose experiments aimed at measuring differential cross sections for pion and kaon production using thin targets of various materials. The materials are chosen among the most common candidates for neutrino targets (see Section 4)
- Replica target experiments, where the yields and differential cross-sections are measured for an exact copy of the target used in the corresponding neutrino experiment.
6. Focusing of Secondary Mesons
6.1. Horns
6.2. Quadrupole Multiplets
7. Hadron Beam Lines
7.1. Acceptance Stage
7.2. Momentum Selection & Final Focusing Stages
7.3. Particle Identification Instrumentation
8. Decay Section
8.1. The Decay Volume of Monitored Neutrino Beams
8.2. Flux Monitoring at the Neutrino Factories
9. Hadron Dump Diagnostics
10. Mitigation Techniques of Beam Systematics at the Neutrino Detectors
10.1. The Near-Far Detector Technique
10.2. Appearance Measurements
10.3. High Precision NDs
10.4. Energy Unfolding
10.5. The PRISM Technique
10.6. The Narrow-Band Off-Axis (NBOA) Technique
10.7. Flux Measurement at the Detector
11. From Monitored to Tagged Neutrino Beams
12. Conclusions: A Step beyond the State-of-the-Art
- the MIPP data on thick Carbon target [167]
- the muon chambers located after the beam dump
- the neutrino-electron elastic scattering at the MINERA detector
- the low- neutrino-nucleus scattering at the MINERA detector
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Beamline | Current (kA) | Pulse Length (ms) | Repetition (Hz) | Intensity (protons) | Momentum (GeV/c) | Extraction |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CNGS [112,113,114] | 150 | 2 by 50 ms, Hz | 400 | Fast | ||
MiniBooNE [30] | 170 | 5 | Fast | |||
NuMI [29] | 205 | 120 | Fast | |||
T2K [26,111] | 320 | 30 | Fast | |||
WANF [46,78] | 100 | ≳7 | 2 by s, Hz | 330–450 | Slow (6 ms) |
Source | LB | SB-MNB | NF |
---|---|---|---|
POT | OK | irrelevant | irrelevant |
secondary yield | critical | ancillary | ancillary |
transport | ≃irrelevant | ≃irrelevant | |
muon monitoring | marginal | critical | ancillary |
detector | critical | ancillary | ancillary |
lepton monitoring (MNB) | not used | critical | ancillary |
BCT in TL | not used | ancillary | critical |
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Charitonidis, N.; Longhin, A.; Pari, M.; Parozzi, E.G.; Terranova, F. Design and Diagnostics of High-Precision Accelerator Neutrino Beams. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1644. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041644
Charitonidis N, Longhin A, Pari M, Parozzi EG, Terranova F. Design and Diagnostics of High-Precision Accelerator Neutrino Beams. Applied Sciences. 2021; 11(4):1644. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041644
Chicago/Turabian StyleCharitonidis, Nikolaos, Andrea Longhin, Michelangelo Pari, Elisabetta Giulia Parozzi, and Francesco Terranova. 2021. "Design and Diagnostics of High-Precision Accelerator Neutrino Beams" Applied Sciences 11, no. 4: 1644. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041644