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Article

Impact of Nanoparticles from Ball-Milled Date Palm Biochar on the Hydro-Physical Characteristics of Sandy Soils

by
Abdulrasoul M. Al-Omran
*,
Mohammed Awad Mousa
,
Abdulaziz G. Alghamdi
and
Arafat Alkhasha
Department of Soil Science, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(13), 7781; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13137781
Submission received: 8 June 2023 / Revised: 28 June 2023 / Accepted: 29 June 2023 / Published: 30 June 2023
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Water management in sandy soils (Typic Torripsamments) is crucial in sustaining agricultural production. The main goal of this research was to assess the impact of date palm biochar on the physical properties of sandy soil with different particle sizes of biochar (macro and nano). For nano-biochar preparation, stick chips were established into a tubular furnace with nitrogen air and heated to 400–450 °C, which was accompanied by a holding period of 4 h. The ball-milled biochar was inclined via ball grinding in a model number PQN2.110 planetary mill and within jars (500 mL), and the biochar-to-sphere mass ratio was 1:100. The sphere-milling apparatus was processed at a speed of 300 rpm for 13 h. Laboratory experiments were carried out at one rate—biochar 5%—and three depths (0.0–5, 5–10, and 10–15 cm). Applying macro-biochar reduced cumulative evaporation compared to the control by 4%, 24%, and 14% for the macro-biochar particles at soil depths. In contrast, biochar reduced cumulative evaporation compared to the control by 8%, 12%, and 4% for the nano-biochar particles at the soil depths tested. Adding biochar significantly raised the amount of retained water, with the highest level recorded at the 5–10 cm depth, while the variations were significantly lower between the macro and nano-biochar when in the direction of the soil surface (0–5 cm), indicating the significance of mixing biochar with the top 10 cm of the soil to increase its ability to reduce evaporation and increase the amount of water retained in the soils. It could be concluded that applying at the top of the coarse soil can positively impact soil hydro-physical properties and increase soil water availability to plants.

1. Introduction

The interest in adding biochar (BC) to improve the hydro-physical properties of sandy soils has increased dramatically in recent years. In addition, with the application of a suitable particle size and rate of biochar, mainly in the form of nanoparticles, the hydro-physical characteristics of sandy soils in arid and semi-arid regions have been improved. There are main forms of particle biochar that can be used to improve soil physical properties: macro-biochar (<2 mm) and nano-biochar (<100 nm). However, biochar nanoparticles are considered the most promising amendments to enhance soil physical properties in water conservation and have been tested under both laboratory and field conditions using chemical processes in preparation [1].
There are two approaches for altering the surface characteristics of biochar: synthetic or physical modification. Most of the methods of qualification continue to be projectiles for weaponry, such as those which use oxidizing powers or an acidic or soluble environment. According to reports, these methods significantly enhance the changed physicochemical characteristics of biochar [2].
According to physical techniques reported by [3,4], nano-biochar can be produced using a variety of qualification processes. Ball-mill extrusion represents a highly efficient and environmentally responsible method for producing nanoparticle-based substances with unique traits [5,6]. Numerous studies concluded that preparation via ball milling could enhance the physiochemical properties of biochar and increase the effective adsorption of mineral and organic matter [1,7].
The effective application of biochar as a soil additive, which could serve as a carbon sink, a detoxifying agent, and a way for increasing plant production, particularly when developed as a char–mineral combination, has generated interest regarding characterization. Improving biochar efficiency, choosing the raw material, and the preparation conditions necessitate an understanding of the composition and the chemistry of biochar composed of different minerals and organic phases [8]. The characterization of the biochar nanocomposite was accomplished using a reduced size (nanoscale) and resulted in an mesoporous structure, with MgO nanoparticles evenly distributed with the biochar at low doses of 1.0 g L−1 and 0.2 g L−1, respectively [9].
Abundant scientists reported on the impact of macro sizes of biochar on the physical characteristics of soil [10,11,12,13]. Recently, many scientists stated that the macro particle size (≤2 mm) of biochar may be decreased by the soil bulk density and increased by the soil moisture content. The biochar produced from date palms reduced the bulk density and increased the field capacity (FC) of sandy soil compared to untreated soil [14]. Mangrich et al. [15] determined that the biochar produced from palm oil increased the water-holding capacity of sandy soil. Laghari et al. [16] stated that the application of pine sawdust macro-biochar at the rate of 22 t ha−1 caused a reduction in the saturated hydraulic conductivity by up to 37%, and increased water retention capacity and water holding capacity by 28–32% and 11–14%, respectively. Githinji [17] concluded that biochar increased the physical properties of sandy loam soils. Raised rates of biochar application caused a linear decrease in saturated hydraulic conductivity Ksat; the Ksat values were 0.49, 0.31, 0.23, 0.20, and 0.18 cm min−1 for the application rates of 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% (v/v), respectively.
The study by [11] investigated the effects of macro particles sizes of biochar produced from Conocarpus waste and with different application depths on the behavior of hydro-physical properties in laboratory conditions. Results indicated that the soil water remained at 15.14% when using biochar with a particle size of <0.5 mm, 12.48% for a biochar particle size of (0.5–1), and 11.58%, for a particle size of (1–2 mm). Ibrahim et al. (2013) stated that cumulative evaporation decreased by 5.4–12.0, and the field capacity (FC) increased by 7.2–15.9% at the surface layer of the column, and the results demonstrated that applying biochar to the soil at rates of 5, 10, 15, and 20 g kg−1 resulted in an obvious effect on soil water retention capacity, which increased by 8.9%, 17.6%, 28.1%, and 30.9%, respectively.
In a recent study on the use of macro-biochar and compost by [13], results showed that the use of biochar, compost, and the biochar–compost combination affected the pattern of soil moisture distribution. Furthermore, applying date palm waste biochar at rates of 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4% to the top 10 cm layer significantly decreased cumulative evaporation by 5.8%, 10.8%, 12.8%, and 16.1%, respectively. Baiamonte et al. [18] reported on the influence of the different dosages of biochar on a sand–clay soil composition and observed that the application of the biochar enhanced the pore spaces, field capacity, the greatest amount of water available, stability ratio, and saturated water content in the soil, whereas Laird et al. [19] could not find any evidence of hardwood biochar having significant effects on saturated hydraulic conductivity.
Considered a vital food source and the principal crop in terms of efficiency and area cultivated, the date palm is a tree of enormous importance in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. A total of 32 million date palm trees were grown in the Kingdom’s agricultural region in 2018, producing an estimated 1,539,775 tons of produce [20]. The effect of employing waste date palm biochar of nanoparticle size on the sandy soil properties was not well understood, and very little research has been conducted on the preparation of nanoparticles from date palm to be used in improving sandy soil physical properties. As a result, the main aim of this study was to determine the influence of date palm waste biochar with different particle sizes (macro and nano) and the position of biochar on selected hydro-physical properties of the sandy soil (Typic Torripsamments).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Soil Sampling and Preparation

A sandy soil (Typic Torripsamments) sample was collected from the surface layer of an agricultural field near Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (altitude: 722 m above mean sea level, latitude: 25°17′40″ N longitude: 45°52′55″ E). The soil sample was air-dried and passed through a 2-mm sieve. The physical and chemical characteristics of the soil sample were persistent in accordance with standard processes [21]. The chemical composition of the soil sample was examined with an X-ray diffractometer, Tokyo, Japan.
The particle size distribution was estimated using the pipette method. The soil moisture characteristics had been estimated using the hanging water column method in the high-water-potential range and the pressure plate in the low-water-potential range [22]. The saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) was determined via the constant-head standard method [23].
The zeta potential of the sandy soil sample was measured using the Zeta Sizer Nano Series Instrument (Malvern Instrument Ltd., Malvern, UK). The soil was sieved through a 150-µm sieve, and 250 mg of L−1 soil suspension was prepared using both pure water and a NaHCO3 electrolyte solution. The soil suspension was allowed to settle down for 48 h, and the supernatant was collected. Before measurement, the suspension was sonicated for 30 min, cooled to room temperature, and stirred for 10 min right before analysis [24].
Twenty readings of the zeta potential for the soil suspension were measured, and the average value was recorded. Table 1 presents a list of the selected chemical and hydrophysical characteristics of the sandy soil used in this study.

2.2. Preparation and Characterization of Biochar

Date palm waste leaves were collected from various districts of the farm at the King Saud University experimental station in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, unprotected to direct sun to dry out, then cut down the petiole bases (fronds). The fronds were cut into small pieces (20–30 cm) and provided for use as date palm waste biochar without the leaflets.
The date palm waste pieces were packed fixedly in a stainless steel-fortified barrel (60 cm radius and 90 cm length) to minimize air entry and to provide nearly oxygen-free conditions. The barrel was tightly closed and subject to outdoor pyrolysis at a temperature of 400–450 °C ± 10 °C [13]. The biochar was passed through a 2-mm sieve and was considered the macro-sized biochar, while nano-biochar was arranged via ball milling in a model number PQN2.110 planetary mill (Across International Supplies Lab Equipment, Livingston, NJ, USA) within jars (500 mL), with the biochar-to-ball mass ratio being 1:100. The ball-milling machine worked at a speed of 300 rpm for 13 h. The Fourier transform function of infrared spectrometry (FTIR; Nicolet 6700) was used to analyze the surface organic functional groups of the produced biochar in the range of 500–4000-cm−1 wave numbers [2,25]. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) images of the nano and macro-biochar were taken immediately after preparation by depositing two droplets of a diluted suspension of nano-biochar onto a carbon-coated 400 mesh copper grid. The surface area of the macro and nanoparticles and adsorption/desorption isotherms of the biochar were measured using the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method using N2 gas at 77 K. The total surface area was increased from 116.3 to 132.9 m2 g−1 when the biochar nanoparticles were stabilized after the time required using nitrogen gas in the system [26].

2.3. Biochar–Soil Mixture Preparation

The biochar was detached into two sizes by sieving through a series of mesh sizes, with the big size being retained. The mill globe was utilized to produce the 100 nm (nano) biochar from a size of 2 mm (macro). The soil was thoroughly combined with each size of biochar before being used at a rate of (5% w/w) to obtain a layer that was 5-cm thick and a bulk density of around 1600 kg/ m−3. [13].

2.4. Soil Column Experiment

Twenty-four transparent plastic columns were inclined before the arrangement of the experiments. The plastic columns were 2.5 cm in width and 40 cm in height. To secure the soil in the column from falling from the bottom, two filter papers were topped by a piece of cloth immovably held by series and adhesive tape. The soil was added by hand in increments of established weight in plastic columns under gentle shaking of the column until the height mark of 30 cm with a resultant average bulk density of 1600 kg m−3 was reached. A diagrammatic drawing of the experiment (Figure 1) demonstrates the three depths (D1, D2, and D3). The total number of columns was 24 (= 2 biochar size (macro + nano) × (3 depths + 1 control) × 3 replicates). The thickness of the treated layer with biochar was 5 cm (biochar–soil combination) [13].

2.5. Intermittent Evaporation and Infiltration Measurement

As described by [13]. Infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration were calculated according to Philip [27]:
I = St0.5 + A1t
where I is the cumulative infiltration (cm), S is the sorptivity (cm. min−0.5), and A1 is a constant related to hydraulic conductivity. The infiltration rate was calculated as the first derivative of the cumulative infiltration:
I = 0.5St−0.5 + A1

2.6. Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity (KSat)

As described in [13]. The saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) can be calculated as follows:
Ksat= (Q × L)/(A × t × H)
where Ksat is the saturated hydraulic conductivity, Q is the volume of water, L is the length of the soil column, A is the cross-sectional area of the soil sample, t is the time required for the volume of water Q to be discharged, and H is the head gradient.

3. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using the software SPSS for Windows (SPSS Inc., version 2, Chicago, IL, USA). Data values were presented as averages along with their standard deviation (±1 SD). The least significant difference (LSD at p < 0.01) test has been applied to assess the differences among the means of the replicates [28].

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Characterization of the Nano Biochar Nanoparticles

4.1.1. FTIR Analysis of Biochar Nanoparticles

Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) was used for polymer identification of nano-biochar particles. The FTIR spectrum of nano-biochar contains multiple different bands. (Figure 2). The band at approximately 3230–3550 cm−1 is attributed to the O-H stretching vibrations, while the peak at the 2850–3300 measure is assigned to C-H vibrations. The band at 1680 cm−1 is related to carbonyl group stretching. The band at 1750 cm−1 is assigned to the stretching mode of C=C groups. Furthermore, the bands at 1448, 1400, and 1350 cm−1 are attributed to O-CH3 and the vibration of the hydroxyl group.

4.1.2. Hydrodynamic Size and Zeta Potential

The average hydrodynamic content or aggregates calculated via Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) of biochar nanoparticles varies considerably from the diameter of a single biochar nanoparticle calculated using a TEM or image analysis techniques. As biochar nanoparticles are suspended in an electrolyte solution, they tend to agglomerate, forming aggregates of two or more particles depending on aggregation and synthetic cases in the suspension. DLS presumes the size of any particle (or aggregate of particles) with a certain equal diameter to be similar in size. Therefore, size average diameters determined via DLS cannot be directly compared to TEM diameters. TEM analysis revealed that the average size of biochar nanoparticles ranged between 30–70 nm, respectively (Figure 3). These characteristics are constant with results from prior studies in our laboratory for date palm waste biochar [29].

4.2. Intermittent Evaporation

The amount of water which was added to the soil columns’ macro and nano-biochar during the four cycles of wetting/evaporation was 50.94 mm. At the end of the experiment, the amount of water reserved in the columns (added minus evaporation) varied between 7.70 mm to 14.30 mm (Table 2). Cumulative evaporation was highest in the untreated treatments, found to be between 32.13 mm and 30.11 mm after 4 weeks. The application of macro-biochar reduced cumulative evaporation in comparison to the control by 4%, 24%, and 14% for the macro-biochar particles at soil depths of 0–5 (D1), 5–10 (D2), and 10–15 cm (D3), respectively (Figure 4A). The application of nano-biochar reduced cumulative evaporation in comparison to the control by 8%, 12%, and 4% for the nano-biochar particles at soil depths of 0–5 (D1), 5–10 (D2), and 10–15 cm (D3), respectively (Figure 4B). The results of the evaporation studies could be like previous research, which indicated that soil treated with biochar showed lower evaporation rates, attributed to the biochar particles’ ability to minimize bigger soil pores and enhance water retention [30,31]. Furthermore, Table 2 and Figure 4 illustrate the results of the weekly evaporation of each wetting/dry cycle and total water recovered for the control and biochar at different application depths (D1, D2, and D3). In general, cumulative evaporation at the end of each wet/dry cycle was lower by 8.76, 6.12, 11.51, and 6.88 mm for the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th positions, respectively, compared to untreated soils with biochar as well as the total of 33.28 mm for the control treatments. Table 2 and Figure 4A show that the untreated sandy soil had the highest values of total cumulative evaporation and weekly evaporation compared to other macroparticle biochar treatments. Concerning nano-biochar addition, Table 2 and Figure 4B show that treatment at depth D2 has the highest water retained, followed by treatment at D1, D3, and the control. The cumulative evaporation of nano treatment was 34.4, 37,85, 24.67, and 25.81 mm at the end of four wetting/drying cycles for the control, D1, D2, and D3, respectively. The beneficial effect of enhancing the ability of sand soil to maintain water occurs primarily via the use of materials that are highly porous, such as biochar [10,32,33]. The improvement in soil water could be related to decreasing the large pores of sandy soil. Several studies indicated that the enhancement of soil moisture retention by adding biochar with smaller particles might be explained by increasing the amounts of small pores in sandy soil [10,32,34]. In addition, the large surface area of biochar may be the cause of an increase in the soil water-holding capacity, especially in sandy soils. In another study, using different biochar waste in conjunction with the size of microparticles in the soil was found to increase the soil surface area [13]. In general, adding biochar might alter and enhance water retention of soil by increasing the surface area and porosity and reducing bulk density [32,33,35].
Figure 4A,B show the impact of the application depth of macro and nano-biochar on cumulative evaporation and, sequentially, how this increases the water retained in soils. Generally, the addition of macro or nano-biochar at a depth of 5–10 cm (D2) has better results in retaining water compared to other depth treatments. Added the biochar into the 5–10 cm (D1) layer improved the conserved water and reduced the evaporation rates significantly. In general, biochar acted exceptionally well when placed at a depth of D2, where the maximum decrease in cumulative evaporation was noticed.
Adding biochar considerably raised the amount of water retained at the top-most layer, which was at a depth of 5–10 cm, while the alternatives were considerably lower between macro and nano-biochar when placed at the soil surface D1 (0–5 cm), signifying the importance of adding biochar to the top 10 cm of the soil to increase its ability to reduce evaporation and increase water storage in soils. As a survey, Table 2 marked the advantageous impact of macro and nano-biochar that possibly altered the spread of soil pores in sandy soils. In accordance with the miscellaneous hypothesis, the nano-biochar could enhance the mesopores and porosity that organize soil moisture retention [36,37].

4.3. Soil Moisture Content

At the end of the evaporation experiment, the soil moisture content was obtained and presented in Figure 5. For the nano-biochar particle application, the highest increase in soil moisture content, distinguished from the control soil, was at a depth of (15–20 cm, depth) for D2 treatments, followed by D1 and D3 treatments. Distinguished from the non-treated soils, for nanoparticle biochar, the percentage of increases in soil moisture content ranged from 5% to 8% for D1, from 10% to 22% for D2, and from 8 % to 15% for D3. Additionally, for macro-biochar, these increases are categorized from 4% to 8% for D1, from 7% to 12 % for D2, and 10% for D3. These findings demonstrated that applying biochar at depths of 0–5 and 5–10 cm, using particle sizes of less than 1 mm, leads to larger increases in soil moisture content in the soil columns. The soil surface (0–5 cm) frequently contains the lowest values of soil moisture content on account of the raised rate of evaporation. The layer treated with biochar has the most amount of soil moisture ever measured as compared to untreated soil, particularly in the top 5–10 cm of the soil column. Accordingly, the maximal soil moisture content was noticed in both the nano and macro-biochar 10 cm and 20 cm layers, as presented in the 10-cm amended layer (Figure 5A,B). These obtained results disclosed that adding macro and nano-biochar to sandy soil restricted the flow of soil water into the deep layer and improved soil water conservation, like the results of additional studies conducted before and that agreed with [11,38,39].

4.4. Infiltration

The results concerning sorptivity (cm min−0.5), cumulative infiltration (cm), and infiltration rate (cm min−1) are shown in Figure 6. Figure 6A,B depicts the cumulative infiltration and infiltration rate data for all the treatments tested. Cumulative infiltration of water through the soil was reduced with the addition of macro-biochar and nano-biochar (Figure 6). Results demonstrate no significant dissimilarity in cumulative infiltration between the control and soil treated at 0–5 cm. The average decline in cumulative infiltration ranged between 10% and 25% as compared with the control soil. The use of biochar overwhelmed the rate at which water infiltrated into the soil. Again, no significant differences were noticed in the infiltration rate between the macro and nano-biochar (Figure 6). The presence of fine biochar particles in pore spaces could be a reason for the decreased infiltration rate and increased water retention. In contrast, the synergetic, positive effect of biochar and compost was noted for soil infiltration rate, water retention, and aggregate stability over the sole application of compost when it was used in sand clay loam soils, as the biochar would act as the cementing material for forming the stable soil aggregates [40].
Usually, the improved layer of 5–10 cm made a meaningful impact on cumulative infiltration compared with unamended soil. The maximum time required for completing the (100 cm3) infiltration process within unamended soil columns was 6 min for all instances of cumulative infiltration, and the infiltration rate was 2.1 and 5.8 cm/min for the minimum and maximum points, respectively. The time for cumulative infiltration was increased considerably with the addition of both macro and nano-biochar. Therefore, the water flow in amended soil was slower than in unamended soil (control), and the time desired for the infiltration process was increased compared with the control (unamended sand soil), confirming earlier reports [10,41,42]. These findings demonstrate that the finer particles of the amended biochar enter more easily into the pores of sandy soil, and consequently, the width of the soil pores become reduced, resulting in a decrease in the water infiltration rate [11]. In contrast, a recent study reported by [43] that the enhanced plant available water rate and reduced bulk density previously reported during the initial years of adding biochar faded in the long term, and that this was likely due to the dilution of biochar concentration in topsoil.

4.5. Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity (KSat)

Figure 7 shows the Ksat values for soil amendment with macro-biochar and nano-biochar. In addition, the Ksat value decreased more with biochar application. Thus, with the addition of biochar, the average value decreased by 85.35% and 98.98% for macro and nano-biochar, respectively. The position of the amended layer of biochar caused a positive effect on the saturated hydraulic conductivity compared with the control soil (Figure 7). Ksat in the unamended soil showed the highest value of saturated hydraulic conductivity (0.6 cm min−1). Ksat in the 5–10 cm amended layer of the macro and nano-biochar decreased to less than 0.1 cm min−1 compared with the control. Similar findings were reported in previous studies [10,11,17]. As reported by Carter et al. [44], hydraulic conductivity is controlled by organic matter, number and distribution of macrospores, soil texture, and the tension of the soil water. Therefore, the additive biochar may be able to modify the sand soil structure and reduce the sizes of soil pores, particularly macro/large pores [32,45].

5. Conclusions

The application effects of date palm waste biochar derived from two different production processes on evaporation, moisture distribution, infiltration, sorptivity (Sp), saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat), and water holding capacity (WHC) were examined in a soil column experiment. The findings demonstrated that in comparison to untreated soils, increasing the application of date palm waste biochar (macro and nanoparticles) decreased daily and cumulative evaporation. As a result, with the addition of biochar in the topsoil surface, soil water conservation increased. Moreover, adding date palm waste biochar with nanoparticles at a depth of 5–10 cm was more effective on the water that is retained in soils. The application of biochar significantly reduced the infiltration rate, cumulative infiltration, Ksat, and WHC compared to untreated soils. Additionally, it was found that untreated soils showed the highest evaporation, infiltration, and Ksat rates while having the lowest soil water conservation, soil moisture distribution, and WHC. It would be reasonable to conclude that date palm waste biochar, particularly when added at the nanoscale particle size, is beneficial for modifying the hydro-physical characteristics of sandy soils, and thus has great impact on the growth of the field crops and vegetables.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.M.A.-O. and M.M.A.; methodology, M.M.A. and A.M.A.-O.; software, A.A.; validation, A.A., A.M.A.-O. and A.G.A.; formal analysis, A.M.A.-O. and M.M.A.; investigation, M.M.A. and A.A.; resources, A.G.A. and A.M.A.-O.; data curation, M.M.A. and A.M.A.-O. writing—original draft preparation, M.M.A.; writing—review and editing, A.M.A.-O.; supervision, A.M.A.-O.; project administration, A.G.A.; funding acquisition, A.G.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are available from the authors upon request.

Acknowledgments

This project was funded by the National Plan for Science, Technology, and Innovation (MAARIFAH), King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Award Number (13-AGR1104-02).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Applsci 13 07781 g001 550
Figure 1. Diagrammatic drawing of biochar–soil combination added to different depths of D1 (0–5 cm), D2 (5–10 cm), and D3 (10–15 cm).
Figure 1. Diagrammatic drawing of biochar–soil combination added to different depths of D1 (0–5 cm), D2 (5–10 cm), and D3 (10–15 cm).
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Figure 2. Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) spectrum of the nano-biochar.
Figure 2. Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) spectrum of the nano-biochar.
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Figure 3. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) images of biochar nanoparticles.
Figure 3. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) images of biochar nanoparticles.
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Figure 4. Effect of the application of (A) macro-biochar and (B) nano-biochar particles at four depths on cumulative evaporation (in mm) after 4 weeks of wetting/evaporation cycles.
Figure 4. Effect of the application of (A) macro-biochar and (B) nano-biochar particles at four depths on cumulative evaporation (in mm) after 4 weeks of wetting/evaporation cycles.
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Figure 5. Effect of nano-biochar (A) and macro-biochar (B) on soil moisture content distribution.
Figure 5. Effect of nano-biochar (A) and macro-biochar (B) on soil moisture content distribution.
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Figure 6. Effect of application of macro-biochar and nano-biochar on cumulative infiltration (A) and infiltration rate (B).
Figure 6. Effect of application of macro-biochar and nano-biochar on cumulative infiltration (A) and infiltration rate (B).
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Figure 7. Saturated hydraulic conductivity Ksat of macro-biochar and nanoparticles in relation to sandy soils.
Figure 7. Saturated hydraulic conductivity Ksat of macro-biochar and nanoparticles in relation to sandy soils.
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Table
Table 1. Chemical and hydro-physical properties of the sandy soil used in the study.
Table 1. Chemical and hydro-physical properties of the sandy soil used in the study.
MeasurementUnitValue
Sand%98.8
Silt%0.8
Clay%0.4
Hydraulic conductivitycm s−10.0184
Zeta potentialmV−16.8
pH-8.82
Electrical conductivityµS cm−1146.9
Calciumppm28.4
Magnesiumppm37.2
Sodiumppm7.9
Potassiumppm4.3
Bicarbonateppm1.1
Chlorideppm12.6
Table
Table 2. Evaporation and amount of water retained (in mm) after 4 weeks of wetting/evaporation cycles.
Table 2. Evaporation and amount of water retained (in mm) after 4 weeks of wetting/evaporation cycles.
Treatment (macro)Water Added (mm)Evaporation (mm)Cumulative Evaporation (mm)Water Retained (mm)Recovery * %
Week 1Week 2Week 3Week 4
Control50.948.76b6.13c11.516.88a33.28b10.27c85.50
0–5 cm50.947.79a5.59b11.517.79a32.69a9.20b82.22
5–10 cm50.947.74a5.37a11.249.78b34.13b9.78b86.20
10–15 cm50.948.90b5.62b11.166.88a32.55a7.79a79.20
LSD (0.05)-------0.1430.0270.720.1960.13 0.16
Treatment (Nano)
control		50.949.19c5.65c12.38d7.18c34.40c6.96a81.20
0–5 cm50.949.61d6.74d12.02c9.48d37.85d11.65b97.17
5–10 cm50.945.21a4.96a10.07b4.43b24.67a14.30c76.51
10–15 cm50.947.93b5.18b9.49a3.21a25.81b11.66b73.56
LSD (0.05)--------0.0190.1910.0020.0020.020.15
* Recovery% = (water retained in soils by equation #2/ (added water—cumulative evaporation)) × 100. Same letters are not significant.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Al-Omran, A.M.; Mousa, M.A.; Alghamdi, A.G.; Alkhasha, A. Impact of Nanoparticles from Ball-Milled Date Palm Biochar on the Hydro-Physical Characteristics of Sandy Soils. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 7781. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13137781

AMA Style

Al-Omran AM, Mousa MA, Alghamdi AG, Alkhasha A. Impact of Nanoparticles from Ball-Milled Date Palm Biochar on the Hydro-Physical Characteristics of Sandy Soils. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(13):7781. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13137781

Chicago/Turabian Style

Al-Omran, Abdulrasoul M., Mohammed Awad Mousa, Abdulaziz G. Alghamdi, and Arafat Alkhasha. 2023. "Impact of Nanoparticles from Ball-Milled Date Palm Biochar on the Hydro-Physical Characteristics of Sandy Soils" Applied Sciences 13, no. 13: 7781. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13137781

APA Style

Al-Omran, A. M., Mousa, M. A., Alghamdi, A. G., & Alkhasha, A. (2023). Impact of Nanoparticles from Ball-Milled Date Palm Biochar on the Hydro-Physical Characteristics of Sandy Soils. Applied Sciences, 13(13), 7781. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13137781

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