Application of Selected Lean Manufacturing Tools to Improve Work Safety in the Construction Industry

Abstract

Shaping safe and hygienic working conditions is the basic obligation of the employer. Employers are still looking for methods, tools, and solutions to improve work safety. The study reviews the literature on solutions aimed at improving occupational safety in construction. For this purpose, bibliometric analysis was used, consisting of the exploration and analysis of scientific studies in the field of occupational health and safety, including the possibility of using the LM tool to improve working conditions on construction sites. The study presents the possibility of implementing Lean Manufacturing (LM) tools in the construction industry. Their strengths and weaknesses were identified, and the benefits and possible barriers related to their effective implementation/use were identified. The result of the analyses was a summary of benefits for the construction industry (strengths and opportunities) as well as areas requiring improvement (weaknesses and hazards) regarding the LM tools used. Based on the conducted analyses, it was found that it is possible to use the tools of the LM concept to improve work safety and organize tasks performed on construction sites. The implementation of LM tools, such as 5S/6S, Poka-Yoke, and Standardization, enables risk reduction through a direct impact on the area being analyzed, in which occupational hazards have been identified. It is also noted that there is a need to simultaneously use LM tools (VM, Gemba-Walk, DHM) as solutions aimed at reducing risk.

1. Introduction

Shaping safe and hygienic working conditions is an important issue both in the design of workplaces and in the solutions implemented by employers (technical and organizational solutions). New methods and tools are increasingly sought to improve the organization of working conditions and work safety. Proper work organization, the use of methods and tools to improve the implementation of work on construction sites, and properly developed procedures can significantly improve safety because it is one of human needs, but also becomes a basic element of construction project management [1]. The issue of occupational health and safety is the subject of many scientific studies in which the authors draw attention to the essence of the problem relating to the occurrence of accidents [2], the use and implementation of preventive solutions [3], new technologies to improve working conditions and increase supervision over them [4,5,6]. The conducted research becomes important from a practical point of view due to the fact that construction workers are exposed to the risk of accidents more than workers in other industries, as well as the increased awareness of occupational hazards [7]. This is due to the nature of the business and the specificity of the activity and work carried out, as well as the sources of occupational hazards, depending on the place where construction work is performed. The occurrence of accidents in the construction industry is an important issue due to the number of people injured on a global scale; the average number of people injured in fatal accidents and as a result of other events causing injuries is three times higher than among employees performing all other activities [8], which results from the nature of the construction work performed [9].

Attention is also paid to the months, days and hours of recording accident events [9], thus indicating their possible repeatability. Factors that play an important role among workers involved in accidents on construction sites are professional experience, level of education, and knowledge of occupational health and safety [10]. Attention is also paid to the size of the investment and enterprise. In the case of small enterprises, there is a low level of occupational health and safety, lack or improper use of protective measures and failure to comply with the applicable markings [11]. In the case of large investments, attention is paid to greater investor supervision over subcontractors, subcontractors over subcontractors, where attention is paid to occupational health and safety training, audits, consultations and understanding the essence that all interested parties are responsible for accidents (client, consultant, contractor, and employee) [12]; therefore everyone should be involved in the subject matter and strive to eliminate accidents. Lack of involvement will generate costs for each party involved in the project.

In the case of registered accident events, it cannot be forgotten about health ailments resulting from the way work is performed (e.g., manual transport work), the place of work (e.g., variable weather conditions and high/low temperature), as well as the negative effects noticeable in the long run. That is why it is so important to engage in pro-safety activities, where contractors and owners should attach the highest importance to ensuring occupational safety [13]. Contractors and owners should engage in pro-safety activities without treating them as unnecessary costs. Therefore, attention is drawn to the need to understand the manifestations of cost and safety interactions [14]. In connection with the above, it is important to recognize the fact that accidents are costs incurred by construction companies, and investing in occupational health and safety becomes a priority in reducing them. Methods and tools to improve occupational safety are still being sought. In practice, work safety monitoring methods were used to ensure cooperation between the general contractor and the subcontractor, as well as the occupational health and safety services implementing the project [15].

In terms of monitoring safety at various stages of construction, it is possible to use unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) in the field of work to support safety management on construction sites [16]. The usage of drones also allows for reducing the risk of accidents when working at heights, thus improving safety [16,17,18].

A solution that allows continuous supervision of compliance by construction workers with applicable occupational health and safety regulations and rules, as well as their use of protective measures provided for by the organizer of the work, is the use of continuous monitoring. Visual video processing is actively used to automatically recognize workers and their behavior during construction works [19]. Constant supervision of working conditions also ensures the ability to implement safety measures at a specific place and time. The solutions used also allow for monitoring dangerous working conditions [16]. Therefore, appropriate protective prophylaxis can be implemented on time, aimed at reducing the risk of accidents—and thus improving occupational safety [20,21].

In the literature [22,23,24,25,26,27,28], attention is drawn to the possibility of using new technologies (Industry 4.0 technologies) to improve work safety in construction industry enterprises. The authors review the technologies used, such as 3D printing, augmented reality and wearable sensors, virtual reality, bionic exoskeleton, building information modeling (BIM), radio frequency identification (RFID), helmets with sensors and smart helmets, and the Internet of Things (IoT). New technologies allow for a broader view of security issues, but attention is also drawn to the need to take a critical look at the technologies used and to take into account barriers to their application. Their strengths are also identified in terms of activities enabling effective safety management in construction [25,26]. Attention is also drawn to the possibility of using biosensors to measure stress, which may improve occupational safety and health of employees, in addition to productivity, which cannot be preferred over occupational safety [28].

The scope of issues related to work safety on construction sites allows for the registration of traditional solutions aimed at reducing the number of registered accident events in the construction industry. First of all, the analyses are aimed at identifying accident factors (electrical hazards, level differences, moving parts of machines and devices, falling objects, etc.), as well as the use of protective prophylaxis to reduce the occurrence of accident events [29,30,31]. Occupational health and safety analyses (audits) are also carried out to assess compliance with occupational health and safety rules on construction sites [32], and directions for safety-related activities are established. An overview of selected solutions aimed at improving safety in the construction industry is presented in

Table 1. Selected solutions used to improve safety in the construction industry—literature review.

Author/Authors	Applied Solutions	Characteristics of Implemented Solutions
Stala, A.; Dąbrowski, A. (2006) [15]	Work safety monitoring system	A set of activities aimed at improving safety, allowing for responding to existing problems and solving them. Responsibilities have been divided within the system
Nowobilski, T.; Hoła, B. (2023) [16] Jeelani, I.; Gheisari, M. (2021) [17] Choi, H.W.; Kim, H.J.; Kim, S.K.; Na, W.S. (2023) [18]	Unmanned aerial vehicles (drones)	Possibility of using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) at various stages of construction in the field of occupational safety management during construction works
Cheng, J.C.P; Wong, P.K.Y.; Luo, Wang, M.; Leung, P.H. (2022) [19] Martinez, P.; Al-Hussein, M.; Ahmad, R. (2019) [20] Tay, J.; Shi, P.; He, Y.; Nath, T. (2019) [21]	Visual video processing (machine learning)	Monitoring employee behavior in terms of compliance with occupational safety rules, including the use of personal protective equipment. Monitoring unsafe working conditions
Soares Junior, G.G.; Satyro, W.C.; Bonilla, S.H.; Contador, J.C.; Barbosa, A.P.; Monken, S.F. de P.; Martens, M.L.; Fragomeni, M.A. (2021) [22] Turner, C.J.; Oyekan, J.; Stergioulas, L.; Griffin D. (2021) [23] Zhang, S.; Teizer, J.; Lee, J.K.; Eastman, Ch.M.; Venugopal, M. (2013) [24] Guo, H.; Yu, Y.; Skitmore, M. (2017) [25] Nnaji, Ch.; Gambatese, J.; Lee, H.W.; Zhang, F. (2020) [26] Dobrucali, E.; Demirkesen, S.; Sadikoglu, E.; Zhang, Ch.; Damci, A. (2024) [27] Lee, T.Y.; Ahmad, F.; Sarijari, M.A. (2023) [28]	Selected technologies of Industry 4.0	Industry 4.0 technologies supporting work safety in the construction industry. Technologies include 3D printing and drones, augmented reality and wearable sensors, virtual reality, bionic exoskeleton, building information modeling (BIM), radio frequency identification (RFID), helmets with sensors and smart helmets, Internet of Things (IoT)
Chi, Ch.F.; Yang, Ch.Ch.; Chen Z.L. (2009) [29] Winge, S.; Albrechtsen, E. (2018) [30] Chi, Ch.F.; Chang, T.Ch.; Ting, H.I. (2005) [31] Bigelow, P.L.; Greenstein, S.L.; Keefe, T.J. Gilkey, D.P. (1998) [32]	Traditional solutions	Accident analysis, hazard identification, review of preventive measures used, audits of working conditions in the construction industry

.

Lean Manufacturing (LM) solutions are also used in construction practice. This concept was developed in the 1990s based on the Toyota Production System (TPS), developed by T. Ohno and S. Shingo. This system includes a set of methods, tools, and practices implemented at Toyota Motor Company since 1948 [33,34]. Production in the LM system is called “lean” because, compared to mass production, it uses much fewer resources and in half the time [35]. Its main goal is to identify and eliminate activities that do not bring added value to the process, referred to as waste [36,37,38]. There are seven categories of waste such as overproduction, excessive inventory, overprocessing, waiting, unnecessary motion, unnecessary transportation, and defects [36,37,38,39]. Identifying and then eliminating or reducing these losses creates the potential for improvement through properly selected LM tools. The most frequently used LM solutions include 5S/6S, Visual Management, Standardization, VSM, Just in Time, Kanban, Kaizen, SMED, TPM, and Poka-Yoke [36,37,38,40]. Additionally, quality management tools are also used, such as the Ishikawa diagram, 5Why analysis, Pareto analysis, and PDCA. For many years, the LM concept has been considered the main approach in operations management, and its importance among practitioners is constantly increasing [41]. LM solutions are used in most manufacturing and service industries around the world [40,42] and bring many benefits, including eliminating errors, reducing inventories, reducing lead time, reducing costs, increasing productivity, and improving quality and occupational safety [34,36,40,43,44]. The construction industry can also achieve these benefits by using solutions taken from TPS.

Based on the model used in the automotive industry, L. Koskela [45] introduced the Lean Construction (LC) approach in 1992 to the construction industry, which involves designing a production system to minimize losses of materials, time, and costs, creating maximum value for the customer. The main goal of LC is to reduce or eliminate activities that do not add value to the project and optimize activities that do. When implementing LC, the importance of a culture of continuous improvement is also emphasized, which enables understanding and correct application of LM principles, which in turn translates into improved quality, efficiency, and work safety [46]. As the construction industry struggles with low productivity rates, inefficient work practices [47], and low levels of occupational safety [48], using LM solutions can reduce losses and improve flow processes, achieving maximum benefits. An overview of LM tools commonly used in the construction industry is presented in

Table 2. LM methods, tools, and techniques used in the construction industry—literature review.

Author/Authors	LM Methods and Tools	Characteristics of the Solutions Used
Anvari, A.; Zulkifli, N.; Yusuff, R.M. (2011) [44] Ahmed, S.; Hossain, M.; Haq, I. (2021) [48] Amade, B., Amaeshi, U.F., Echeme, I.I., Onwusonye, S.I.J., Oguzie, J.O.C (2021) [49] Misiurek, K.; Misurek, B. (2019) [50] Varshini, D. (2024) [51] Aravindh, M.; Sriram, N.S.; Nakkeeran, G.; Jayakeerti, M.; Velan, C.; Krishnaraj, L. (2023) [52] Bajjou, M.S.; Chafi, A.; Ennadi, A.; El Hammoumi, M. (2017) [53] Shaqour, E.N. (2022) [54] Li, S.; Fang Y.; Wu, X. (2020) [55] Yazan, I.A.A.; Bassam, A.T.; Wesam, S.A.; Ali A. (2021) [56] Morshidi, Z.; Othman, M.K.F.; Bohari, A.A.M.; Rais, S.L.A. (2022) [57] Musa, M.M.; Saleh, I.M.; Ibrahim, Y.; Dandaje, M.A. (2023) [58] Kulkarni, P.; Yadav, S.; Yadav, P.; Wankhede; S.; Gaikwad, P.; Vish-wakarma, S. (2023) [59]	5S/6S	A set of activities to organize and maintain an orderly, visual, and safe workplace on construction sites. Applying the 5S/6S principles (removing unnecessary materials, labeling, and storing construction materials and tools in designated places, maintaining general order at the construction site, conducting audits and training) reduces the number of dangerous incidents on the construction site (e.g., trips, falls, slips) and allows to detect damage to materials, tools and construction equipment, the use of which may result in an accident
Ahmed, S.; Hossain, M.; Haq, I. (2021) [48] Amade, B., Amaeshi, U.F., Echeme, I.I., Onwusonye, S.I.J., Oguzie, J.O.C (2021) [49] Bajjou, M.S.; Chafi, A.; Ennadi, A.; El Hammoumi, M. (2017) [53] Li, S.; Fang Y.; Wu, X. (2020) [55] Yazan, I.A.A.; Bassam, A.T.; Wesam, S.A.; Ali A. (2021) [56] Morshidi, Z.; Othman, M.K.F.; Bohari, A.A.M.; Rais, S.L.A. (2022) [57] Musa, M.M.; Saleh, I.M.; Ibrahim, Y.; Dandaje, M.A. (2023) [58] Kulkarni, P.; Yadav, S.; Yadav, P.; Wankhede; S.; Gaikwad, P.; Vish-wakarma, S. (2023) [59]	VM (Visual Management)	Using visual markings on the site to provide employees with key information on quality, work safety, and work schedule and to ensure transparency and efficiency of construction work VM solutions used to improve work safety on construction sites: labels, color codes, safety signs and boards, digital billboards, light and sound signaling, marked dangerous areas, and security cameras monitoring the construction site integrated with signaling
Ahmed, S.; Hossain, M.; Haq, I. (2021) [48] Shaqour, E.N. (2022) [54] Li, S.; Fang Y.; Wu, X. (2020) [55]	Standardization	Application and compliance with standards to eliminate/limit problems and losses when performing tasks on construction sites
Demirkesen, S (2020) [47] Ahmed, S.; Hossain, M.; Haq, I. (2021) [48] Aravindh, M.; Sriram, N.S.; Nakkeeran, G.; Jayakeerti, M.; Velan, C.; Krishnaraj, L. (2023) [52] Bajjou, M.S.; Chafi, A.; Ennadi, A.; El Hammoumi, M. (2017) [53] Shaqour, E.N. (2022) [54] Li, S.; Fang Y.; Wu, X. (2020) [55] Morshidi, Z.; Othman, M.K.F.; Bohari, A.A.M.; Rais, S.L.A. (2022) [56]	Poka-Yoke	Using solutions to protect against quality errors (e.g., control of water addition during mortar production) and to improve work safety, e.g., devices protecting employees from hazards (e.g., excessive heating), devices preventing employees from approaching or crossing risk zones, where there is a possibility of an error leading to an accident, the use of remotely controlled devices
Ahmed, S.; Hossain, M.; Haq, I. (2021) [48] Amade, B., Amaeshi, U.F., Echeme, I.I., Onwusonye, S.I.J., Oguzie, J.O.C (2021) [49] Shaqour, E.N. (2022) [54] Musa, M.M.; Saleh, I.M.; Ibrahim, Y.; Dandaje, M.A. (2023) [58]	Kaizen/ Continuous Improvement	Engaging employees in improvement activities, promoting work efficiency and safety on the construction site
Demirkesen, S (2020) [47] Ahmed, S.; Hossain, M.; Haq, I. (2021) [48] Amade, B., Amaeshi, U.F., Echeme, I.I., Onwusonye, S.I.J., Oguzie, J.O.C (2021) [49] Aravindh, M.D.; Sriram, N.S.; Nakkee-ran, G.; Jayakeerti, M.; Velan, C.; Krishnaraj, L. (2023) [52] Bajjou, M.S., Chafi, A. Ennadi, A., El Hammoumi, M. (2017) [53] Shaqour, E.N. (2022) [54] Li, S.; Fang Y.; Wu, X. (2020) [55] Musa, M.M.; Saleh, I.M.; Ibrahim, Y.; Dandaje, M.A. (2023) [58] Gunduz, M.; Fahmi Naser, A. (2017) [60]	VSM (Value Stream Mapping)	A tool that allows to graphically present the stages of the construction process to easily understand the flow of materials and information. It allows to record and improve the construction process by assessing its current state and paying attention to the time of activities that create and do not create added value at each stage of work
Demirkesen, S (2020) [47]	Gemba Walk	A tool enabling the identification of existing problems, collecting data, and analyzing the causes of problem to introduce improvements in construction work
Ahmed, S.; Hossain, M.; Haq, I. (2021) [48] Aravindh, M.D.; Sriram, N.S.; Nakkee-ran, G.; Jayakeerti, M.; Velan, C.; Krishnaraj, L. (2023) [52] Shaqour, E.N. (2022) [54] Li, S.; Fang Y.; Wu, X. (2020) [55] Yazan, I.A.A.; Bassam, A.T.; Wesam, S.A.; Ali A. (2021) [56] Musa, M.M.; Saleh, I.M.; Ibrahim, Y.; Dandaje, M.A. (2023) [58] Kulkarni, P.; Yadav, S.; Yadav, P.; Wankhede; S.; Gaikwad, P.; Vish-wakarma, S. (2023) [59]	JiT (Just in Time)	A tool for inventory management and monitoring, cost control, quality control, and work planning in the construction industry. Timely delivery of materials in the right quantity for a given stage of work reduces the number of accidents at work
Ahmed, S.; Hossain, M.; Haq, I. (2021) [48] Jang, J.-W. and Kim, Y.-W. (2007) [61]	Kanban (Pull system)	Kanban—as a tool ensuring reliable workflow by regulating the flow of resources and as a safety control tool in construction
Demirkesen, S. (2020) [47] Ahmed, S.; Hossain, M.; Haq, I. (2021) [48] Amade, B., Amaeshi, U.F., Echeme, I.I., Onwusonye, S.I.J., Oguzie, J.O.C (2021) [49] Musa, M.M.; Saleh, I.M.; Ibrahim, Y.; Dandaje, M.A. (2023) [58] Kulkarni, P.; Yadav, S.; Yadav, P.; Wankhede; S.; Gaikwad, P.; Vishwakarma, S. (2023) [59]	Daily Huddle Meetings	Daily, short meetings to discuss ongoing tasks and solve current problems (e.g., related to work safety, including identifying the causes of accidents) that could hinder the progress of construction work
Ahmed, S.; Hossain, M.; Haq, I. (2021) [48] Aravindh, M.D; Sriram, N.S.; Nakkee-ran, G.; Jayakeerti, M.; Velan, C.; Krishnaraj, L. (2023) [52] Aravindh, M.D.; Nakkeeran, G.; Krishnaraj, L. (2024) [62]	PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act)	Using the PDCA cycle to redesign the process and production methods used in construction to achieve improvement
Ahmed, S.; Hossain, M.; Haq, I. (2021) [48]	Ishikawa diagram	Solving problems that arise during the implementation of tasks by identifying the causes of their occurrence
Ahmed, S.; Hossain, M.; Haq, I. (2021) [48] Aravindh, M.D.; Nakkeeran, G.; Krishnaraj, L. (2024) [62]	FMEA (Failure Mode and Effects Analysis)	A tool used to improve products, processes, and to analyze risks and hazards in construction projects along with their potential effects
Demirkesen, S. (2020) [47] Ahmed, S.; Hossain, M.; Haq, I. (2021) [48] Shaqour, E.N. (2022) [54] Aravindh, M.D.; Nakkeeran, G.; Krishnaraj, L. (2024) [62]	5Why analysis	Problem-solving tool to identify the root cause and eliminate it to avoid recurrence in construction work
Ahmed, S.; Hossain, M.; Haq, I. (2021) [44] Shaqour, E.N. (2022) [54]	Pareto analysis	Data analysis regarding the frequency of causes or problems occurring in construction work/projects

. They also include quality management tools that support solving problems occurring on construction sites.

In terms of improving occupational safety in the construction industry, 5S/6S, implemented in five or six steps, plays a significant role in the selection, systematics, cleaning, standardization, self-discipline, and safety. It is emphasized [48] that safe working conditions are of key importance in the uninterrupted workflow on the construction site because accidents are a source of losses, which is an obstacle to creating value for the customer. The literature [44,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59] indicates that the use of 5S/6S principles in construction allows you to organize and maintain an orderly, visual workplace, which reduces the number of accidents caused by crowding of the construction site and the general disorder there (e.g., trips, falls, slips). The solutions used within 5S/6S include [56,57]: removal of unnecessary materials and equipment from the construction site, separation and marking of zones for storing construction materials placing tools and equipment in designated areas, compliance with established standards, audits, and training. Attention is also drawn to the problem of lack of awareness of construction workers in the field of health and safety [48]; therefore, the implementation of 5S/6S can be an effective tool supporting the management of work safety on construction sites. An orderly construction site facilitates the detection of errors and the identification of damage to materials, tools, and equipment [57], which also pose a risk of an accident at work. 5S/6S is considered one of the first steps that an organization should take to implement LC [53].

Another solution for improving safety on construction sites is Visual Management (VM). Limited levels of visualization and lack of supervision are often the cause of accidents on construction sites [56]. VM involves presenting key information to all employees in a simple, clear and understandable way. Thanks to visual markings, the construction process becomes transparent, simple and safe for construction workers. Visual indicators streamline work and facilitate communication [53], show deviations from standards, and thus help employees identify irregularities during work [49,53]—which affects work safety. Various VM solutions can be used to improve health and safety on construction sites [48,49,53,55,56,57,58,59]: labels, color coding, safety signs, digital billboards, safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment, safety control boards, signage for hazardous areas, use of physical barriers, marking of safe passageways for workers, light and sound signals (sirens), and monitoring cameras integrated with the signaling system to respond to hazards during construction works.

In the aspect of work safety in the construction industry, the importance of standardization is also emphasized. The use and compliance with standards (work and safety) allow to reduce or elimination problems occurring during construction work [48,54,55]. Standards that reflect best practices in the workplace can be used to change employee behavior to improve occupational safety [55].

The use of error-proof devices (Poka-Yoke) in construction is considered an effective way to avoid human errors in terms of work quality and work safety [47,48,52,53,54,55,57]. Mechanical or electronic systems are used to identify and prevent potential errors in construction works, and in the event of irregularities, the operation is automatically interrupted, or a problem/error warning is given (light and sound signals)—alarm siren switches should be available to all workers to ensure safety in emergencies [57]. Other examples of protection against errors leading to accidents are [53,57] devices protecting employees against excessive heating, noise, and other hazards (signaling and interrupting work), devices preventing employees from approaching or crossing risk zones (e.g., the possibility of objects falling from a height or a zone of concrete waiting to dry), the use of remotely controlled devices to facilitate work and reduce the likelihood of accidents caused by manual operation.

The literature [47,48,49,52,53,54,55,58,60] also draws attention to the use of Value Stream Mapping (VSM) in construction to record the course of the construction process by assessing its current state and paying attention to time creating value and time not creating value for the client at every stage of work. By graphically presenting subsequent stages of construction (visualization of the entire process and indicators), you can easily understand the flow of materials, information, and documentation and identify problems [47,53]. In this way, VSM supports the design of the construction process and provides opportunities for improvement, e.g., in terms of facilitating workflow (balancing workload, reducing process complexity, minimizing unnecessary movements of employees and materials) [49,53,60]. Since safe working conditions are crucial to achieving uninterrupted workflow [56], VSM can be used as a supporting tool for improving health and safety.

Gemba Walk (“go, see, ask why”) is also an essential practice, which allows supervisors to see and assess the current condition of the construction site in terms of any problems. Regular Gemba Walks help collect data regarding the root cause of the problem and its solution [47]; therefore, they can be an effective tool for identifying and eliminating occupational safety problems.

The literature [48,52,54,55,56,58,59,61] also draws attention to the use of Just in Time (JiT) and Kanban in the construction industry. JiT is a tool for managing and monitoring inventory, quality, cost control, and work plans. It ensures the efficiency of construction works by reducing the flow time in the process and the response time of suppliers to end users [48,52,54,55,58,59]. In terms of improving occupational health and safety, delivering materials at the right time and in the appropriate quantity for the stage of project work being carried out reduces the number of accidents at work caused by the formation of “congestions” at the construction site [56]. The Kanban technique is used to control the amount of materials used in construction processes and regulate their flow, which ensures a reliable workflow [48]. Attention is also drawn [61] to the use of Kanban cards as a tool for controlling work safety in construction. Using Kanban cards at each stage of the construction process provides key information regarding the type of task performed, materials used, and information on work safety (based on data on accidents, their causes, and methods of prevention). The mechanism of synchronization of Kanban-controlled production and safety control systems both enables reliable workflow and improves health and safety [61].

Another solution used in construction is Daily Huddle Meetings, during which tasks to be performed and current problems that may hinder the implementation of works are discussed. Moreover, these meetings facilitate communication within the team and involve employees in undertaken activities, especially in the field of problem-solving [47,48,49,58] and also in the field of detecting the causes of accidents at work [47]. Attention is also paid to the possibility of using tools in construction to analyze occurring problems, determine their root causes, and improve the process, including Pareto analysis [48,54], 5Why analysis [47,48,54,62], Ishikawa diagram [48], FMEA [48,62], PDCA [48,52,62], and Kaizen [48,49,54,58]. In terms of improving work safety in the construction industry, the importance of tools identifying root causes is particularly emphasized, which may result in higher efficiency and productivity while eliminating risky conditions [47].

The aim of the study is to present the possibilities of using Lean Manufacturing tools to improve occupational health and safety on construction sites. Due to the above, a list of exemplary hazards (Section 3.1) occurring on construction sites was prepared. The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and hazards resulting from the implementation and use of Lean Manufacturing tools in the construction industry were identified (Section 3.2). In Section 3.3, a list of preventive actions aimed at reducing the risk associated with the hazards listed in Section 3.1 was made. However, in Section 3.4, a collective summary of positive and negative factors was made, as well as their repeatability in terms of the tools being the subject of the analysis.

2. Materials and Methods

The achievement of the assumed goal was possible thanks to the development of a four-stage methodology for my own work is shown in Figure 1. The first stage involved conducting a bibliometric analysis, which is a method of exploring scientific data, allowing for the analysis of specific fields and areas that are the subject of research [63,64,65]. The main goal of the analyses was to identify scientific studies that recorded the issues of work safety on construction sites [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32] and the impact of Lean Manufacturing tools on improving work safety [44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63]. For this purpose, the following databases were explored: Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar and ResearchGate.

In the first stage, the following keywords were analyzed: “Health and Safety in Construction”, “Lean Safety”, and “Lean Construction”, in the next stage, the area of analysis was narrowed down to “Lean Construction and Safety”, “Lean Manufacturing tools in the construction industry”. The analyses conducted included articles published between 1991 and 2024.

For the narrowed area relating to the words “Lean Construction and safety”, 262 publications were analyzed—the WOS database and 399 for the SCOPUS database. In the case of the keyword “Lean Manufacturing tools in the Construction Industry”, 69 publications were analyzed for the WoS database and 136 publications for SCOPUS. The initial analysis was made on the basis of the title of the study, abstract, and keywords. Ultimately, 50 publications were selected regarding the possibility of using LM tools in the construction industry, which were related in detail to the subject matter. Selected studies constituted the basis for preparing a literature review (Section 1) and developing the research part (Section 3). Based on the analysis of the number of studies, it is concluded that since 2005, there has been an increase in the number of studies devoted to this issue. The graphic number of publications for the SCOPUS and Web of Science databases published in the years 1991–2024 is shown in Figure 2.

Based on the literature study, exemplary hazards registered in the construction industry were identified (

Table 3. Hazards and LM tools are used to improve work safety on construction sites.

Hazards	5S/6S	VM	Stand.	P-Y	VSM	JiT	DHM	Kaizen	GW	Total
(a)	(b)	(c)	(d)	(e)	(f)	(g)	(h)	(i)	(j)	(k)
Blocked passages and access to places on the construction site	x				x	x	x	x	x	6
Disorder in the workplace	x	x	x		x	x	x	x	x	8
An area at the same level from which workers can fall	x	x					x	x	x	5
Difference in levels, climbing stairs, working on scaffolding, working below grade		x					x	x	x	4
Sharp edges (working tools)		x	x				x	x	x	5
Moving machine elements		x	x				x	x	x	5
Material ejection (working tools)		x	x				x	x	x	5
Electrical hazards (electric current)		x	x	x			x	x	x	6
Noise		x	x	x			x	x	x	6
Mechanical vibrations		x	x	x			x	x	x	6
Dust		x	x				x	x	x	5
Fire breaks out		x	x	x			x	x	x	6
Internal transport		x			x	x	x	x	x	6
Physical load—static		x					x	x	x	4
Physical load—dynamic		x	x				x	x	x	5
Emotion burden				x			x	x	x	3
Objects falling from a height, work tools	x	x		x			x	x	x	6
Greases, oils		x	x				x	x	x	5
Burned		x	x				x	x	x	5
Hot materials, surgaces		x	x				x	x	x	5
Incorrect lighting							x	x	x	3
Variable weather conditions							x	x	x	3
Frequency of use	4	18	13	6	3	3	22	22	22	-

). The identified hazards occurred in both small and large construction projects. In the next step, based on the literature analysis [44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62], the strengths and weaknesses resulting from the implementation/use of Lean Manufacturing tools were identified, as well as opportunities and threats—stage 2. The analysis was carried out for each LM tool that was used in the construction industry in terms of improving occupational health and safety (

Table 4. Analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of 5S/6S as well as opportunities and threats related to implementation and use.

	Strengths	Weaknesses
	Positive Factors	Negative Factors
Internal	- Proper organization of work on the construction site; - Proper organization of the workplace contributes to the improvement of working conditions; - Reducing material waste due to their proper storage (identification of non-compliances affecting safe working conditions); - A decrease in the number of registered accidents at work and near-accident events, thanks to the proper organization of work—and thus the costs of accidents at work; - Shaping occupational health and safety culture and employee awareness.	- Lack of knowledge in the field of 5S/6S; - Improper implementation/use of the tool; - Lack of supervision; - Failure to follow established procedures; - Turnover of construction workers; - Resistance and lack of employee involvement; - Lack of awareness; - Lack of training; - Lack of self-control.
	Opportunities	Threats
External	- The positive reception of the company among potential employees is due to the creation of safe working conditions and the good organization of work carried out on the construction site aimed at reducing accidents; - Building awareness of the implemented solutions in the field of occupational health and safety based on positive results of inspections by supervisory authorities.	- Lack of knowledge in the 5S/6S method of subcontractors’ employees; - Failure of subcontractors’ employees to comply with applicable procedures; - The need to supervise the work of subcontractors’ employees.

,

Table 5. Analysis of VM’s strengths and weaknesses as well as opportunities and threats related to implementation and use.

	Strengths	Weaknesses
	Positive Factors	Negative Factors
Internal	- Proper marking of places on the construction site for storage, unloading, etc.; - Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment; - Safety control boards; - Marking of dangerous areas; - Use of marked physical barriers; - Marking safe passage routes for employees; - Light and sound signals; - A decrease in the number of registered accidents at work and near-accident events, thanks to proper marking of workplaces and work performed; - Improving the communication process between management and construction workers; - Shaping occupational health and safety culture and employee awareness.	- Lack of knowledge in the field of VM; - Improper implementation/use of VM; - Failure to follow established procedures; - Resistance and lack of employee involvement; - Lack of awareness; - Turnover of construction workers; - Lack of supervision; - Lack of training; - Failure to remove identified non-conformities related to damage to boards, markings, barriers, light and sound signals; - Ambiguous visual messages; - Lack of communication regarding changes introduced in the labeling.
	Opportunities	Threats
External	- The positive reception of the company among potential employees due to the creation of safe working conditions and ensuring good organization of work carried out on the construction site aimed at reducing accidents; - Building awareness of the implemented health and safety solutions based on positive results of inspections by supervisory authorities.	- Failure of subcontractors’ employees to comply with applicable markings and visual signals; - The need for additional supervision over the work of subcontractors’ employees.

,

Table 6. Analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of standardization as well as opportunities and threats related to implementation and use.

	Strengths	Weaknesses
	Positive Factors	Negative Factors
Internal	- Unification of performed tasks aimed at eliminating the occurrence of dangerous events; - Maintaining order at workstations (following procedures); - Limiting unnecessary traffic on the construction site, resulting from applicable labor and safety standards; - Shaping the awareness of construction workers in the field of occupational health and safety (safety standards).	- Lack of knowledge in the field of standardization; - Improper implementation of standards; - Lack of supervision; - Failure to follow established procedures; - Resistance and lack of employee involvement; - Lack of awareness of the impact of standardization on health and safety; - Lack of training; - No information about changes in standards (lack of communication).
	Opportunities	Threats
External	- Positive reception of the company among potential employees due to the creation of safe working conditions and ensuring good organization of work carried out on the construction site aimed at reducing accidents; - Building awareness of the implemented health and safety solutions based on positive results of inspections by supervisory authorities.	- Non-compliance of subcontractors’ employees with applicable standards; - The need for additional supervision over the work of subcontractors’ employees in terms of compliance with established standards.

,

Table 7. Analysis of Poka-Yoke’s strengths and weaknesses as well as opportunities and threats related to implementation and use.

	Strengths	Weaknesses
	Positive Factors	Negative Factors
Internal	- Elimination of dangerous events by introducing technical solutions at the workplace; - Preventing errors made by employees during repetitive activities that carry the risk of distraction leading to an accident at work; - Identification of dangerous situations thanks to the implemented technical solutions (warning signal).	- Incorrect design of technical solutions to prevent dangerous situations (lack of knowledge, incorrect implementation); - Lack of communication regarding the introduction of technical solutions; - Failure to comply with applicable procedures; - Lack of supervision; - Lack of training; - Resistance and lack of awareness of the proposed solutions.
	Opportunities	Threats
External	- Positive reception of the company among potential employees due to the creation of safe working conditions and ensuring good organization of work carried out on the construction site aimed at reducing accidents; - Building awareness of the implemented solutions in the field of occupational health and safety based on the results of inspections by supervisory authorities.	- Non-compliance of subcontractors’ employees with applicable rules; - Additionally, continuous supervision of subcontractors’ employees is required to comply with the rules related to the introduction/use of Poka-Yoke solutions.

,

Table 8. Analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of VSM as well as opportunities and threats related to implementation and use.

	Strengths	Weaknesses
	Positive Factors	Negative Factors
Internal	- Limiting the occurrence of dangerous situations by identifying activities that do not bring added value to construction processes (excessive employee traffic, waiting, high level of material inventories); - Improving working conditions and health and safety by identifying the source of pollution (dust, smoke, post-production waste); - Improving working conditions by balancing workload (even division of tasks between employees) and reducing the complexity of the construction process.	- Lack of knowledge of superiors in the field of process mapping; - Improper use of the tool; - Turnover of construction workers; - Lack of awareness; - Lack of commitment; - Lack of communication/information flow in the construction process.
	Opportunities	Threats
External	- Positive reception of the company among potential employees due to the creation of safe working conditions and ensuring good organization of work carried out on the construction site aimed at reducing accidents; - Building awareness of the implemented solutions in the field of occupational health and safety based on positive results of inspections by supervisory authorities.	- High dynamics in the supply of materials, creating dangerous situations on the construction site; - Disorganization of construction works due to the lack of permanent partners (material suppliers), affecting working conditions; - Disorganization of work due to frequent changes in the design/construction works.

,

Table 9. Analysis of Just in Time’s strengths and weaknesses as well as opportunities and threats related to implementation and use.

	Strengths	Weaknesses
	Positive Factors	Negative Factors
Internal	- Elimination/reduction of accidents thanks to the delivery of materials exactly on time and in the right quantity, preventing the formation of “congestions” on the construction site; - Facilitating work planning, thanks to deliveries on time and in the right quantity, creating safer working conditions (more predictable).	- Lack of knowledge in the application of JiT principles; - Failure to comply with established rules regarding the flow of materials in the construction process; - Failure to comply with the established work schedule creates dangerous situations on the construction site (excessive accumulation of materials); - Lack of awareness of the impact of JiT on safe working conditions.
	Opportunities	Threats
External	- Proper coordination between suppliers reduces the risk of accidents resulting from “congestion” on the construction site; - Proper coordination of suppliers and supplies of materials allows for safer work (developed work methods); - Positive reception of the company among potential employees due to the creation of safe working conditions and ensuring good organization of work carried out on the construction site aimed at reducing accidents; - Building awareness of the implemented solutions in the field of occupational health and safety based on positive results of inspections by supervisory authorities.	- Failure of subcontractors’ employees to comply with applicable rules; - Additional, continuous supervision of subcontractors’ employees in terms of compliance with the introduced solutions; - Lack of coordination in the supply of materials may result in the disorganization of work and the occurrence of dangerous situations.

,

Table 10. Analysis of Kaizen’s strengths and weaknesses as well as opportunities and threats related to implementation and use.

	Strengths	Weaknesses
	Positive Factors	Negative Factors
Internal	- Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions; - Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities; - Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site.	- Lack of knowledge in the field of Kaizen; - Incorrect implementation/use of Kaizen; - Turnover of construction workers; - Lack of response to deviations related to health and safety at the construction site; - Lack of support from superiors; - Lack of employee involvement; - Lack of awareness of health and safety; - Lack of motivation among the crew; - Lack of training.
	Opportunities	Threats
External	- Positive reception among potential employees and other entities due to the involvement of employees in creating safe working conditions; - Building awareness of the implemented solutions in the field of occupational health and safety based on positive results of inspections by supervisory authorities.	- Lack of response to hazards and dangerous situations by subcontractors’ employees due to lack of involvement in pro-safety activities; - Lack of proposals for solutions to safety problems on the part of subcontractors’ employees due to the lack of commitment and awareness related to the functioning of Kaizen.

and

Table 11. Analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of Gemba Walk and Daily Huddle Meeting as well as opportunities and threats related to their implementation and use.

	Strengths	Weaknesses
	Positive Factors	Negative Factors
Internal	- Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events); - Identification of the causes of accidents; - Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to occupational safety; - Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards); - Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site.	- Incorrect, irregular use of tools; - Lack of knowledge in problem-solving; - Lack of response from superiors to deviations related to compliance with health and safety regulations on the construction site; - Lack of supervision; - Lack of involvement of superiors and employees; - Lack of awareness of health and safety; - No communication.
	Opportunities	Threats
External	- Positive reception among potential employees and other entities due to the involvement of employees in creating safe working conditions; - Building awareness of the implemented solutions in the field of occupational health and safety based on positive results of inspections by supervisory authorities.	- Lack of involvement of subcontractors’ employees; - Additionally, continuous supervision of the work of subcontractors’ employees is required in terms of compliance with health and safety regulations.

).

Stage 3—consisted of a list of solutions/actions aimed at mitigating the threats resulting from the implementation of LM tools (

Table 12. Solutions to reduce the identified hazards provided in the LM.

Hazards	Actions to Reduce Accident Risk (LM Tools)
(a)	(b)
Blocked passages and access to places on the construction site	Proper organization of work on the construction site (5S/6S); Proper organization of the workplace to improve working conditions (5S/6S); Proper storage of materials (5S/6S); Shaping the occupational health and safety culture and employee awareness (5S/6S, Kaizen, DHM, Gemba Walk); Limiting the occurrence of dangerous situations by identifying activities that do not bring added value in Construction processes (excessive employee traffic, waiting, high level of material inventories)—(VSM); Facilitating work planning thanks to deliveries on time and in the right quantity, creating safer working conditions (more predictable)—(JiT); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events)—(DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk)
Disorder in the workplace	Proper organization of work on the construction site (5S/6S); Proper organization of the workplace to improve working conditions (5S/6S); Proper storage of materials—in designated places (5S/6S); Proper marking of places on the construction site for storage, unloading, etc. (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Shaping the occupational health and safety culture and employee awareness (5S/6S, VM, Kaizen, DHM, Gemba Walk; Maintaining order at workstations (following procedures) (Standardization); Limiting the occurrence of dangerous situations by identifying activities that do not bring added value in construction processes (excessive employee traffic, waiting, high level of material inventories)—(VSM); Improvement of working conditions and health and safety by identifying the source of pollution (dust, smoke, post-production waste)—(VSM); Elimination/reduction of accidents thanks to the delivery of materials exactly on time and in the right quantity, preventing the formation of “congestions” on the construction site (JiT); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk);
Area at the same level where workers may fall	Proper organization of work on the construction site (5S/6S); Proper organization of the workplace to improve working conditions (5S/6S); Reducing the waste of materials due to their proper storage (identification of non-compliances affecting safe working conditions) (5S/6S); Proper marking of places on the construction site for storage, unloading, etc. (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Use of marked physical barriers (VM); Marking of safe passage routes for employees (VM); Light and sound signaling (VM); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site (Kaizen, 5S/6S, VM); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events)—(DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk).
Differences in levels, moving up stairs, working on scaffolding, working below the level	Proper marking of places on the construction site for storage, unloading, etc. (VM); Safety boards presenting instructions (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Use of marked physical barriers (VM); Marking of safe passage routes for employees (VM); Light and sound signaling (VM); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Shaping the culture of work safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site (VM, Kaizen, DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk). Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk);
Sharp edges (work tools)	Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment (VM); Security control boards (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site (Kaizen, VM, DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk).
Moving parts of machines	Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment (VM); Security control boards (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Use of marked physical barriers (VM); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site (Kaizen, VM, DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk).
Material ejection (work tools)	Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment (VM); Security control boards (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Use of marked physical barriers (VM); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site (Kaizen, VM, DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk).
Electrical hazards (electric current)	Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment (VM); Security control boards (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Use of marked physical barriers (VM); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site (Kaizen, VM, DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near misses) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk). Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Elimination of dangerous events by introducing technical solutions at the workplace (P-Y); Preventing errors made by employees during repetitive activities that carry the risk of distraction leading to an accident at work (P-Y).
Noise	Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment (VM); Security control boards (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site (Kaizen, VM, DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Elimination of dangerous events by introducing technical solutions at the workplace (P-Y); Preventing errors made by employees during repetitive activities that carry the risk of distraction leading to an accident at work (P-Y).
Mechanical vibrations	Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment (VM); Security control boards (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site (Kaizen, VM, DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Elimination of dangerous events by introducing technical solutions at the workplace (P-Y); Preventing errors made by employees during repetitive activities that carry the risk of distraction leading to an accident at work (P-Y).
Dust	Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment (VM); Security control boards (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site (Kaizen, VM, DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk).
Fire/explosion	Proper marking of places on the construction site for storage, unloading, etc. (VM); Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment (VM); Security control boards (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Use of marked physical barriers (VM); Light and sound signaling (VM); Standardization of performed tasks aimed at eliminating the occurrence of dangerous events (standardization); Maintaining order at workstations (following procedures) (standardization); Shaping the awareness of construction workers in the field of health and safety (safety standards) (standardization); Elimination of dangerous events by introducing technical solutions at the workplace (P-Y); Preventing errors made by employees during repetitive activities that carry the risk of distraction leading to an accident at work (P-Y); Identification of dangerous situations thanks to the implemented technical solutions (warning signal) (P-Y); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site (Kaizen, DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk).
Internal transport	Proper marking of places on the construction site for storage, unloading, etc. (VM); Security control boards (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Use of marked physical barriers (VM); Marking of safe passage routes for employees (VM); Light and sound signaling (VM); Improving the communication process between management and construction workers (VM); Limiting the occurrence of dangerous situations by identifying activities that do not bring added value in construction processes (waiting, high level of material inventories) (VSM); Elimination/reduction of accidents thanks to the delivery of materials exactly on time and in the right quantity, preventing the formation of “congestions” on the construction site (JiT); Facilitating work planning thanks to deliveries on time and in the right quantity, creating safer (more predictable) working conditions (JiT); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site (Kaizen, DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk).
Physical load—static	Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment (VM); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site (Kaizen, DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk). Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk).
Physical load—dynamic	Proper marking of places on the construction site for storage, unloading, etc. (VM); Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment (VM); Safety control boards—lifting standards (VM); Improving the communication process between management and construction workers (VM); Shaping the occupational health and safety culture and employee awareness (VM, Kaizen, DHM, Gemba Walk); Standardization of performed tasks aimed at eliminating the occurrence of dangerous events (standardization); Limiting unnecessary traffic on the construction site, resulting from applicable labor standards and safety standards (standardization); Shaping the awareness of construction workers in the field of health and safety (safety standards) (standardization); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near misses) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk).
Emotional burden	Elimination of dangerous events by introducing technical solutions at the workplace (P-Y); Preventing errors made by employees during repetitive activities that carry the risk of distraction leading to an accident at work (P-Y); Identification of dangerous situations thanks to the implemented technical solutions (warning signal) (P-Y); Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible threats) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site (DHM, Gemba Walk, Kaizen).
Objects falling from a height, work tools	Proper organization of work on the construction site (5S/6S); Proper organization of the workplace to improve working conditions (5S/6S); Proper marking of places on the construction site for storage, unloading, etc. (VM); Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment (VM); Security control boards (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Use of marked physical barriers (VM); Marking of safe passage routes for employees (VM); Light and sound signaling (VM); Improving the communication process between management and construction workers (VM); Preventing errors made by employees during repetitive activities that carry the risk of distraction leading to an accident at work (P-Y); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk). Shaping the culture of occupational safety and health and safety awareness on the construction site (VM, DHM, Gemba Walk)
Greases, oils	Proper marking of places on the construction site for storage, unloading, etc. (VM); Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment (VM); Security control boards (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Use of marked physical barriers (VM); Improving the communication process between management and construction workers (VM); Shaping the occupational health and safety culture and employee awareness (VM, Kaizen, DHM, Gemba Walk); Standardization of performed tasks aimed at eliminating the occurrence of dangerous events (standardization); Maintaining order at workstations (following procedures) (standardization); Proposals of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near misses) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk).
Smoke	Proper marking of places on the construction site for storage, unloading, etc. (VM); Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment (VM); Security control boards (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Use of marked physical barriers (VM); Marking of safe passage routes for employees (VM); Light and sound signaling (VM); Improving the communication process between management and construction workers (VM); Shaping the occupational health and safety culture and employee awareness (VM, Kaizen, DHM, Gemba Walk); Standardization of performed tasks aimed at eliminating the occurrence of dangerous events (standardization); Maintaining order at workstations (following procedures) (standardization); Shaping the awareness of construction workers in the field of health and safety (safety standards) (standardization); Proposals of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk).
Hot materials, surfaces	Safety boards presenting health and safety instructions and equipment (VM); Security control boards (VM); Marking of hazardous areas (VM); Use of marked physical barriers (VM); Improving the communication process between management and construction workers (VM); Shaping the occupational health and safety culture and employee awareness (VM); Standardization of performed tasks aimed at eliminating the occurrence of dangerous events (Standardization); Shaping the awareness of construction workers in the field of health and safety (safety standards) (Standardization); Proposals of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near misses) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk).
Incorrect lighting	Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near-accident events) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk).
Variable weather conditions	Suggestions of construction workers regarding solutions affecting safe working conditions (Kaizen); Increased employee involvement in pro-safety activities (Kaizen); Identification of unsafe working conditions and unsafe behavior on the construction site (impact on reducing near misses) (DHM, Gemba Walk); Identification of the causes of accidents (DHM, Gemba Walk); Increased employee involvement in solving problems related to work safety (DHM, Gemba Walk); Improving communication (providing information about tasks to be performed, paying attention to possible hazards) (DHM, Gemba Walk)

).

Stage 4—consisted of a collective list of strengths and weaknesses, opportunities, and threats resulting from the implementation/use of LM tools. For this purpose, a summary of the most common factors (positive and negative) characterizing individual LM tools and their impact on improving occupational safety was made (

Table 13. Common factors of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to the implementation and use of LM tools.

	Strengths	Weaknesses
	Positive Factors	Negative Factors
Internal	- elimination of dangerous events or their reduction (decrease in the number of registered accident events) (∑ = 7)—5S/6S, VM, Standardization, Poka -Yoke, VSM, JiT, Gemba Walk, DHM - identification of unsafe behavior and working conditions (∑ = 6)—5S/6S, VM, Poka-Yoke, VSM, Gemba Walk, DHM - shaping an occupational safety and health culture and building awareness of OSH on construction sites (∑ = 5)—5S/6S, VM, Standardization, Kaizen, Gemba Walk, DHM - communication improvement (∑ = 3)—VM, Gemba Walk, DHM - employee involvement in OSH activities (∑ = 3)—Gemba Walk, DHM, Kaizen	- lack of knowledge in implementing the tool or its incorrect use (∑ = 9)—5S/6S, VM, Standardization, Poka-Yoke, VSM, JiT, Gemba Walk, DHM, Kaizen - lack of employee awareness (∑ = 9)—5S/6S, VM, Standardization, Poka-Yoke, VSM, JiT, Gemba Walk, DHM, Kaizen - lack of involvement (∑ = 7)—5S/6S, VM, Standardization, VSM, Kaizen, Gemba Walk, DHM - lack of communication (∑ = 6)—VM, Standardization, Poka-Yoke, VSM, Gemba Walk, DHM - lack of supervision (∑ = 6)—5S/6S, VM, Standardization, Poka-Yoke, Gemba Walk, DHM - failure to follow established procedures (∑ = 5)—5S/6S, VM, Standardization, Poka-Yoke, JiT - lack of training (∑ = 5)—5S/6S, VM, Standardization, Poka-Yoke, Kaizen - turnover of construction workers (∑ = 3)—5S/6S, VM, Kaizen
	Opportunities	Threats
External	- positive perception of the company among potential employees and other entities due to the creation of safe working conditions (∑ = 9)—5S/6S, VM, Standardization, Poka-Yoke, VSM, JiT, Kaizen, Gemba Walk, DHM - positive results of inspections by supervisory authorities due to a decrease in the number of accidents (the basis for building awareness of the applied health and safety solutions) (∑ = 9)—5S/6S, VM, Standardization, Poka-Yoke, VSM, JiT, Kaizen, Gemba Walk, DHM	- additional, continuous supervision of subcontractors’ employees (∑ = 7)—5S/6S, VM, Standardization, Poka -Yoke, JiT, Gemba Walk, DHM - failure of subcontractors’ employees to comply with applicable procedures (∑ = 5)—5S/6S, VM, Standardization, Poka-Yoke, JiT - lack of involvement of subcontractors’ employees in pro-safety activities (∑ = 3)—Kaizen, Gemba Walk, DHM - disorganization of construction work affecting the possibility of dangerous incidents (∑ = 2)—VSM, JiT

).

3. Results

3.1. Dangerous Situations, Hazards on Construction Sites and the Possibility of Using Selected LM Tools to Reduce Them

The type of work performed, the place where it is performed, and the machines, devices, and tools used become a source of dangerous situations and accidents at work. The authors of works [11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28] drew attention to the need to use solutions whose operation translates into improved safety. The study presents examples of hazards occurring on construction sites. The identified ones (Table 3) include hazards related to physical factors (e.g., electric current, vibrations, moving elements, material ejection), chemical factors (greases, oils), and psychophysical factors (work-related loads). A key element in improving occupational safety is limiting the negative impact of identified hazards on construction sites. For this purpose, a list of possible tools of the Lean Manufacturing concept was made. For each of the identified dangerous situations and hazards, a tool/tools were selected, the implementation of which may translate into improved safety in the work process.

For the purposes of the study, 22 hazards were identified for illustrative purposes, for which the implementation of LM tools was proposed, i.e., 5S/6S, Visual Management, Standardization, Poka-Yoke, VSM, Just in Time, Gemba Walk, Daily Huddle Meetings, and Kaizen (column “a”).

The most frequently used solutions to reduce the identified hazards (columns “h”–“j”) were Daily Huddle Meetings, Kaizen, and Gemba Walk (22 applications each). Daily team meetings make it possible to draw attention to dangerous situations while performing tasks, solve safety-related problems and identify the causes of dangerous events/accidents at work. Similarly, Gemba Walk—thanks to constant supervision by supervisors of work carried out on the construction site, it is possible to identify and eliminate health and safety problems (unsafe behavior, unsafe working conditions). The implementation of Kaizen allows you to engage construction workers in health and safety improvement activities by submitting their own proposals for creating pro-safety activities. The presented solutions may translate into a reduction in risks (Table 3), but the key factors are the commitment and awareness of health and safety for all construction workers and their superiors. The effective use of these tools can become an element of shaping the safety culture on construction sites, where each employee influences various safety-related areas.

The key tools for improving work safety in the construction industry may be Visual Management and 5S/6S (columns “b”–“c”). The use of VM solutions allows the use of visual markings on the construction site to provide employees with important health and safety information, i.e., safety signs, acoustic signals, safety boards, and boards of protective measures used. In this respect, it is possible to reduce the probability of accidents at work related to 18 hazards summarized illustratively (Table 3). 5S/6S is a tool whose effective implementation allows for four illustrative hazards to be reduced. 5S/6S refers to the proper organization of the workplace by implementing activities aimed at creating an organized, orderly, and safe workplace on the construction site. Thanks to 5S/6S practices, it is possible to remove unnecessary materials and tools and store them in designated visually marked places.

Standardization (column “d”) is a tool that allows for reducing accidents at work on the construction site related to 13 hazards listed in Table 3. Performing tasks in accordance with adopted standards that pay attention to existing hazards (e.g., moving elements, electric current, hot surfaces) allows for the identification of dangerous situations and reacting to them. The standards (work, safety) developed and followed reflect the best practices in the workplace; therefore, they can be used to shape the safe behavior of employees on the construction site.

Poka-Yoke (column “e”) has been used to reduce accidents at work related to 6 illustrative hazards (Table 3). Mechanical and electronic systems used on construction sites (identifying and warning against danger or interrupting the operation of devices) prevent employees from making mistakes, which may result, for example, from distraction. Therefore, Poka-Yoke can be an effective tool for reducing the number of accidents at work (e.g., an employee entering a dangerous area).

The use of VSM in the construction industry (column “f”) makes it possible to reduce three illustrative hazards that cause accidents at work. Identification of areas where material inventories accumulate on the construction site (blocked passages), and incorrect internal transport allows for actions to be taken to improve the organization of work and redesign the production system in terms of improving working conditions. Supervisors can use VSM as a supporting tool to solve safety problems.

The use of JiT (column “g”) allows to reduce the occurrence of 3 illustratively summarized threats on construction sites. By monitoring material deliveries (at the right time and quantity), excessive inventories are prevented from accumulating at the construction site, creating dangerous “congestions” that prevent safe movement.

The hazards identified in Table 3 can be eliminated or reduced by using LM tools (“b”–“j”). The number of possible solutions for a given threat is specified in the “k” column. It was found that the largest number of LM tools (eight) can be used to eliminate or reduce disorder in the workplace. Then, six different LM tools can be used to eliminate/reduce threats related to blocked passages (stored materials), electricity, noise, mechanical vibrations of equipment, fire, internal transport, and objects falling from height. Five LM tools can be used to eliminate/reduce threats related to a surface at the same level where a fall is possible, sharp edges of work tools, moving machine elements, ejection of work tools, dust, smoke, lubricants, dynamic physical load (lifting and material handling), and hot materials/surfaces. Four LM tools can be used to eliminate or reduce threats related to differences in levels (moving up stairs, working on scaffolding or below the level), static physical load (long-term work in one position, performing similar movements for a long time) and load emotional (stress and deconcentration). The smallest number of LM tools (three) can be used to eliminate or reduce hazards related to incorrect lighting of the construction site and changing weather conditions.

Based on the analysis, it is concluded that it is possible to adapt selected tools of the LM concept in terms of improving the organization and safety of work on construction sites. The choice of tools depends on the individual problems of the construction company, and the selection criterion is the identified threats. In order to implement a solution that improves safety, it is necessary to conduct a detailed analysis, allowing the selection of LM tools that have the greatest impact on reducing the existing threats. When selecting LM tools, it is necessary to assess possible uncertainties and threats related to the effective implementation of selected LM tools (Section 3.2).

3.2. Identification of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats of Implementing/Using LM Tools in the Construction Industry

For the purposes of this study, the possibility of using Lean Manufacturing tools to reduce the negative impact of hazards on the safety of construction workers was analyzed. Therefore, the strengths and weaknesses of LM tools, as well as the opportunities and threats resulting from their implementation and use, were analyzed (Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, Table 8, Table 9, Table 10 and Table 11). Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, Table 8, Table 9, Table 10 and Table 11 were prepared on the basis of the analysis of literature studies [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62] in the scope of security and the possibility of adapting LM tools in the scope of its improvement. The 5S/6S method was used for four potentially identified hazards—Table 3; however, it is believed that the steps used within it effectively improve the organization and safety of work on construction sites and may find practical application.

Based on the analyses, the strengths of the 5S/6S implementation were assessed, including proper organization of work and the workplace, reduction of waste resulting from the storage of materials, which may result in improved safety and a reduction in the number of registered accidents at work and near misses. Moreover, the application of the 5S/6S principles influences the development of occupational health and safety culture and awareness among the staff. The key element is the involvement of construction management in the implementation of the 5S/6S method. Lack of supervision, failure to follow established procedures, frequent turnover, lack of knowledge, errors in implementation, and lack of self-control and awareness will be among the weaknesses that need to be eliminated to improve safety on the construction site. Effective implementation of 5S/6S (opportunity) may influence the perception of the company by potential employees and other entities as a safe place to work. Particular attention should also be paid to the existing hazards related to achieving the intended goal of improving safety. Lack of knowledge of subcontractors’ employees, non-compliance with established procedures, as well as the need for additional supervision over the effectiveness of compliance with established procedures constitute a hazard to the effectiveness of maintaining 5S/6S and achieving the assumed goals, where the primary goal will be zero accidents. The analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of 5S/6S, as well as the opportunities and threats related to its implementation and use, is presented in Table 4.

An important tool in the field of occupational health and safety and the LM concept is Visual Management, which allows for the transmission of simple and understandable messages to people employed on construction sites (VM allowed for the reduction of 18 potentially identified hazards—Table 3). Proper marking of the construction site, all visual messages regarding hazards, and acoustic information are the strong points of VM, improving safety and working conditions. Moreover, the use of visual messages shapes the occupational health and safety culture and awareness among employees. Effective implementation of VM requires knowledge of the proper implementation of VM, supervision, compliance with applicable rules, awareness of health and safety, involvement of management and employees in compliance with applicable rules, and clear communication about the changes introduced, the failure of which will be a weakness of the proposed solution. The implemented visual management activities will result in improved safety on the construction site among potential employees and external entities. Threats that employers may face may include the need for frequent, additional supervision of subcontractors’ employees who are reluctant to follow established rules and do not comply with visual messages. The implementation of VM (opportunity) may translate into building employee awareness of implementing solutions aimed at improving work safety. Visual messages, information about threats and dangerous situations, and better communication significantly improve the organization of work on the construction site, which results in reduced accidents and a positive reception on the market. The analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of Visual Management, as well as the opportunities and threats related to its implementation and use, is presented in Table 5.

Standardization is an important element of the LM concept because it reflects best practices in the workplace and describes the safest and most effective methods of performing work at the required level of quality. Hence, standardization was used to reduce 13 illustrative hazards (Table 3). Carrying out construction works in accordance with the adopted standards (e.g., moving along designated paths, correct and safe use of equipment, materials and tools, and maintaining order) introduces a unified method of carrying out all tasks, allows maintaining order in the construction site, limiting unnecessary movement of workers in areas of increased risk and build awareness of occupational health and safety. The factors mentioned above affect work safety, which is the strength of standardization in this area. Lack of knowledge, incorrect implementation of standards, lack of supervision by superiors, non-compliance with the procedures introduced by employees, lack of awareness, lack of training, and communication regarding the changes introduced in the applicable standards will constitute weaknesses that affect occupational safety. The effect of standardization and compliance with the introduced rules will be an improvement in safety on the construction site among potential employees and other external entities (opportunities). Failure of subcontractors’ employees to comply with work and safety standards, as well as the need for frequent supervision of subcontractors’ employees related to compliance with standards, may pose a hazard to the effectiveness of standardization in construction work. An analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of Standardization, as well as opportunities and threats related to its implementation and use in the construction industry, is presented in Table 6.

Poka-Yoke allows for the elimination of dangerous events on the construction site by introducing technical solutions that identify and warn against hazards or interrupt the operation of devices (P-Y allowed for the reduction of six potentially identified hazards—Table 3). Reducing the possibility of an employee making an error through properly designed Poka-Yoke solutions has a positive impact on the safety of the tasks performed, especially when the activities performed are repetitive and may cause, for example, distraction. To achieve the goal, i.e., eliminating the possibility of making an error leading to an accident, the implemented technical solutions should be properly designed and implemented. They should be explained to employees, and the way of working at the position (i.e., how it is used) should be standardized and supervised. Improper implementation of Poka-Yoke solutions, lack of supervision, and lack of awareness of the impact of these solutions on health and safety may increase the risk of an accident (weaknesses). Proper implementation of Poka-Yoke can create a positive perception of the company among potential employees and other entities due to the creation of safe working conditions and ensuring good organization of construction works aimed at reducing accidents (opportunities). Among the hazards affecting occupational safety, additional, frequent supervision of employees of subcontractors who do not comply with applicable rules was indicated. An analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of Poka-Yoke solutions, as well as opportunities and threats related to implementation and use, is presented in Table 7.

VSM, by visualizing the flow of materials and information and identifying problems and losses in the construction process, can be an auxiliary tool in improving occupational health and safety (VSM allowed for the reduction of three potentially identified hazards—Table 3). Striving for a smooth workflow (based on the results of process mapping) is important for occupational safety. Based on the analysis, the strengths of the VSM application were assessed, which included the identification of activities that do not bring added value in the form of excessive traffic of construction workers, waiting, and excessive material supplies, which affect the possibility of dangerous situations (tripping, falls, and entering dangerous zones), identification of sources of pollution that worsen working conditions on the construction site (dust, smoke, and post-production waste). The result of using VSM (its strength) may also be the improvement of working conditions, thanks to the reduction of the complexity of the construction process and the equal division of tasks among employees (obtained thanks to process mapping). The key factors are the commitment and awareness of superiors regarding the use of VSM and its benefits (not only in terms of improving work organization but also health and safety). Lack of knowledge in mapping, improper use of VSM, high employee turnover, and lack of information flow in the process are weaknesses that need elimination to improve work safety. The effect of using VSM in the construction process will be a safety improvement perceived among potential employees and other external entities (opportunities). High dynamics in the supply of materials, lack of regular suppliers, and frequent changes in the work schedule may disorganize work and create dangerous conditions (e.g., in the form of excessive inventories, making it difficult to move safely on the construction site). These factors pose a hazard to the effectiveness of the use of VSM in terms of improving occupational health and safety. An analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of VSM, as well as opportunities and threats related to its use in the construction industry, is presented in Table 8.

The use of Just in Time (JiT) in the construction industry aims to ensure the efficiency of work carried out by managing and monitoring material inventories, quality, and task plans (JiT allowed for the reduction of three potentially identified hazards—Table 3). Organizing supplies of materials at the right time and quantity for a given process stage facilitates work planning, which creates safer working conditions (due to the established delivery plan). It also reduces the possibility of accidents (falls, trips) caused by the formation of “congestions” on the construction site that make safe movement difficult (strengths). The weaknesses that make it difficult to achieve the goal of improving occupational health and safety are the lack of knowledge in the use of JiT, lack of awareness of the impact of JiT on safe working conditions, lack of compliance with the rules related to the flow of materials and work inconsistent with the schedule, which disorganizes the work and creates potentially dangerous situations (e.g., excessive accumulation of materials in various places on the construction site). The effective implementation/application of JiT in construction practice (opportunity) can improve work safety, thanks to proper coordination of deliveries and constant cooperation with suppliers, limiting the occurrence of “congestions” on the construction site and enabling the development of permanent, safe work methods. Additionally, the use of JiT may influence the positive perception of the company among potential employees and other entities due to the creation of safe conditions and ensuring good organization of construction works aimed at reducing accidents. One of the potential hazards in the use of JiT on the construction site is the lack of awareness of subcontractors’ employees, which requires additional supervision. Difficult control and failure to implement activities by the implemented JiT standards may negatively affect safety on the construction site. Attention should also be paid to possible lack of coordination in the supply of materials (disorganization of work and the possibility of occurrence of dangerous situations), resulting from delays that may be caused by bad weather conditions that make it impossible to meet the planned construction work schedule. An analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the JiT tool as well as opportunities and threats related to its implementation and use in the construction industry, is presented in Table 9.

Kaizen as a tool for continuous improvement is the basis for shaping the awareness of construction industry employees in the field of occupational safety. Using employee creativity through the ability to propose improvements makes Kaizen one of the most universal tools for improving occupational health and safety and shaping a safety culture (which is why it was used in the field of 22 potentially identified hazards—Table 3). Construction workers encounter potentially dangerous situations in their daily work, and their knowledge and experience, in many cases, can lead to the implementation of a solution that reduces or eliminates the risk of an accident (strengths). A key factor in this respect is the involvement and awareness of employees in the field of occupational health and safety. The use of Kaizen in the activities of a construction company may influence its positive reception among potential employees and other entities due to the involvement of employees in creating safe working conditions (opportunities). Incorrect implementation of Kaizen, lack of knowledge in this area, high turnover of construction workers, lack of response to safety-related deviations, lack of support from superiors, lack of motivation, lack of employee involvement and awareness of health and safety will be the weaknesses of the introduction of Kaizen. A threat to the effectiveness of this solution may be the lack of response to hazards and the lack of potential proposals to solve problems on the part of subcontractors’ employees who do not identify with the company and are not involved in pro-safety activities. An analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the Kaizen tool, as well as opportunities and threats related to its implementation and use, is presented in Table 10.

The implementation of Gemba Walk and Daily Huddle Meetings tools into everyday practice in the construction industry may translate into improved occupational safety. Both solutions were used in the scope of 22 potentially identified hazards (Table 3), which indicates their significant impact on the ability to reduce accidents on construction sites and shape the safety culture. Regular assessment of the current status of work performed by superiors (Gemba Walk) allows the identification of dangerous employee behavior and existing hazards, which is the basis for discussing problems with employees during Daily Huddle Meetings (strengths). Moreover, providing information at meetings related to possible hazards during construction work, identifying the causes of accidents together with employees, engaging them in pro-safety activities and influencing awareness of occupational health and safety. Lack of response by superiors to deviations from health and safety regulations, lack of supervision, lack of awareness in the field of health and safety, lack of commitment, lack of communication about occur-ring safety problems, lack of knowledge in solving problems or incorrect/irregular use of these tools are weaknesses, the elimination of which is crucial to improving work safety. Effective use of Gemba Walk and Daily Huddle Meetings may influence potential employees’ and other entities’ perception of the company as a safe workplace (opportunities). However, the lack of involvement of subcontractors’ employees in safety-related activities and additional supervision of their work in terms of compliance with occupational health and safety regulations may pose a threat to the effectiveness of these tools in reducing potentially accidental events. An analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of Gemba Walk and Daily Huddle Meetings, as well as opportunities and threats related to their implementation and use, is presented in Table 11.

3.3. Risk Reduction Activities within the LM Tools Used

Based on the analysis of the strengths of LM tools listed in Table 3, Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, Table 8, Table 9, Table 10 and Table 11, it was concluded that they constitute good practices in the field of risk reduction. The summarized strengths therefore constitute proposals for preventive solutions aimed at reducing the risk of accidents on construction sites. The solutions listed in Table 12 can be classified as preventive measures falling within the scope of organizational and technical activities. Organizational activities will be related to the organization of work, the workplace, involvement in pro-safety activities, and shaping a safety culture on construction sites. However, technical solutions result, among others, from the use of solutions designed for barriers constituting a physical barrier between the employee and the source of the threat. A summary of actions to reduce the risk of accidents for the identified hazards (Table 3) is presented in Table 12.

The implementation of solutions that reduce the occurrence of hazards (preventive actions) translates into improved safety and, thus, the number of registered accident events. The main goal of construction industry companies should be zero accidents.

3.4. List of Common Factors (Positive/Negative) in the Analysis of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats for the Implemented and Used LM Tools

Section 3.2 identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the implementation/use of LM tools as well as the opportunities and threats for the construction industry resulting from their application. In practice, what most often stands out is the simultaneous use of selected tools to improve work safety on construction sites. Table 13 presents a summary of the factors, taking into account their repeatability (Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, Table 8, Table 9, Table 10 and Table 11). The identified factors were common to the tools in question. Identification of recurring factors that occur most often may be an important element in determining priorities for actions aimed at improving occupational safety. In the case of activities aimed at eliminating dangerous events, the repeatability of identified factors is recorded using the following tools: 5S/6S, VM, Standardization, Poka-Yoke, VSM, JiT, Gemba Walk, DHM, as they concern the safe organization of work and compliance with established procedures and management supervision over employees. The key element in shaping work safety on construction sites is the proper identification of threats and effective protective prevention; therefore, an important activity of the organizer of construction works and construction management is the early identification of dangerous behavior and quick response to this type of situation (5S/6S, VM, Poka-Yoke, VSM, Gemba Walk, DHM). The key element is shaping the occupational health and safety culture and promoting pro-safety activities. This type of attitude can be strengthened thanks to the implementation of 5S/6S, VM, Standardization, Kaizen, Gemba Walk, DHM, and at the same time, the communication itself (VM, Gemba Walk, DHM), which plays an important role in health and safety at construction sites.

The implementation of LM tools in construction industry enterprises provides opportunities to achieve the established health and safety goals and allows for positive reception among potential employees, collaborators, companies interested in cooperation, and subcontractors. A positive aspect may also be the result of the supervisory authorities’ inspection of working conditions, confirming that the adopted standards significantly influence the development of safe and hygienic working conditions. These chances are listed for each of the tools being the subject of this study (Table 13).

When implementing/using LM tools in construction, weaknesses are also recorded. The most frequently recorded weaknesses included a lack of knowledge regarding the implemented tool or its incorrect use, as well as a lack of awareness and involvement of employees (Table 13—weaknesses). Also significant in this respect were the lack of communication and supervision of work (six tools) and employees’ non-compliance with the introduced procedures (five tools). Therefore, the weaknesses listed should be key when implementing/using LM tools, and it is necessary to pay attention to them at an early stage, as they concern the company itself (internal factors).

A common, recurring element in terms of threats (negative factors) was the need for additional supervision, particularly of subcontractors’ employees. This issue was identified for seven tools (5S/6S, VM, Standardization, Poka-Yoke, JiT, Gemba Walk, DHM). Another threat in terms of effective implementation/use, which was registered for five tools, is the non-compliance of subcontractors’ employees with applicable procedures, as well as the lack of involvement in pro-safety activities (in the scope of three LM tools)—Table 13. The human factor plays an important role on the construction site, which is why special attention is paid to it, and actions should be taken to engage employees in health and safety activities.

4. Discussion

Shaping safe and hygienic working conditions on construction sites is the basic obligation of the organizer of these works. This issue is an important concern for both construction companies and workers. In the literature on OSH in construction [15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32], attention is drawn to the need to implement appropriate protective prevention, as well as to look for methods to improve occupational safety or supervision of working conditions. The paper presents the possibility of applying LM tools to improve occupational safety. LM tools are widely used in various industries, including the construction industry. Studies [44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62] draw attention to the possibility of implementing LM tools in improving occupational safety, so the study summarized the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of implementing/applying LM tools in the construction industry (Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, Table 8, Table 9, Table 10 and Table 11). The adaptability was also linked to the risks, which are illustratively presented in Table 3.

A key element in the implementation of LM tools is the analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, Table 8, Table 9, Table 10 and Table 11), on the basis of which it is possible to plan activities for the implementation of LM tools in construction. The juxtaposition of positive and negative factors (Table 12) allows management to take specific actions based on the specifics of the work in progress. A holistic analysis of the juxtaposed factors also makes it possible to assess the suitability of a given tool for the enterprise. In the case of the implementation of LM tools, it may be useful to apply them simultaneously in the construction practice due to the effectiveness of achieving the established goals, i.e., improvement of work safety and elimination of accidental events (zero accidents). The implementation of individual tools can also significantly affect the involvement of construction workers in pro-safety activities and the formation of a safety culture on construction sites.

The implementation and use of LM tools can be an important issue for a number of scientific studies, not only dedicated to the construction industry but also other industries where it will be possible to implement them to improve OSH, such as the mining industry, metallurgy, etc.

5. Conclusions

Based on the analysis, it is concluded that it is possible to use LM tools in the construction industry, taking into account the individual needs of the company. Information summarized illustratively regarding the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to the implementation and use of LM tools may be useful for the organizer of construction works in the selection of a given tool and the possible results to achieve.

The study highlights the strengths of LM tools in terms of their implementation and use, which concern the so-called “hard” aspects related to security, i.e., the identification of hazards and the elimination of hazards. An improvement in communication is also visible in this respect, which may translate into a reduction in the number of registered accident events. The identified strengths of the tools also constitute proposals for risk-mitigating activities within the scope of implemented protective prevention. With reference to the examples of hazards occurring on construction sites (Table 3), the repeatability of risk reduction tools is recorded, in particular for Kaizen (22 hazards), Daily Huddle Meetings (22 hazards), Gemba-Walk (22 hazards) and VM (18 hazards). The implementation and effective use of one tool can significantly improve safety in relation to a larger number of identified hazards. In particular, attention should be paid to tools whose implementation may have a significant impact on changing work organization (hard tools)—5S/6S (4 hazards), Poka-Yoke (6 hazards), the use of which may influence the limitation or elimination of existing hazards. When considering the implementation of individual tools, it is also important to note what hazards they can effectively reduce. What is particularly important is the fact that they allow for the reduction of hazards that may result in the death of construction workers.

The implementation of LM tools is an opportunity for activities aimed at improving occupational safety, as all entities organizing work on the construction site—management and employees—are involved. Effective health and safety management is only possible when these entities cooperate with each other. Therefore, an important element in assessing the effectiveness of implementing the solutions provided in the LM tools for identified hazards will be the risk assessment process. Based on the assessment, the team will determine whether the solutions used reduce the likelihood of accidents occurring. The implementation of LM tools will also require updating the risk assessment due to technical or organizational changes introduced at the construction site.