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Article

The Effect of Waxes on Rapeseed Oil Quality and Acrylamide Development in Potato Fries during Deep-Frying

by
Sylwia Onacik-Gür
1,*,
Stanisław Ptasznik
1,
Urszula Siekierko
1 and
Magdalena Szczepańska
2
1
Department of Meat and Fat Technology, Prof. Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agriculture and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland
2
Department of Food Safety and Chemical Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(17), 7578; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177578
Submission received: 25 June 2024 / Revised: 1 August 2024 / Accepted: 13 August 2024 / Published: 27 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into Food Analysis Methods)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This paper analyzed the effects of adding rice bran wax (RW) and beeswax (BW) to rapeseed oil as a deep-frying medium and the quality parameters of potato fries, including acrylamide contamination. It was found that the addition of RW and BW caused an increase in the oil’s acidity. However, oil deterioration based on peroxide values and fatty acid profiles did not differ very much from the oil without waxes. The study showed that the addition of rice bran wax at the level of 2.5 g/L of rapeseed oil was able to significantly decrease oil uptake in potato fries. The addition of waxes did not influence the color parameters in the first frying cycle; however, changes were observed later. The browning index indicated that 10 g of BW per liter may darken fries in comparison to rapeseed oil without additives. It was found that with an increase in wax content in the frying medium, potato fries contained more acrylamide.

1. Introduction

Deep-frying is common all over the world as a food preparation method, and it is present in most cuisines. The popularity of this process is based on the unique sensory properties of fried food, such as crunchiness and specific aromas. Deep-frying requires high temperatures (150–190 °C), which ensure the microbiological safety of fried products; however, this process has many disadvantages. Due to the contact of the frying medium with oxygen, water from fried products, and high temperatures, the frying oil undergoes many unfavorable changes. The most stable fats used for deep-frying purposes are rich in saturated fatty acids [1]. Full hydrogenation is one of them, but it leads to a decrease in nutritional value due to the lower content of unsaturated fatty acids. Moreover, this method may lead to trans fatty acid (TFA) development, which has the most negative effect on heart disease development [2]. TFAs are limited by regulations in many countries all over the world. A high saturation of fatty acids gives fats a solid consistency [3]. From the users’ point of view, this is not desirable due to the problem of dosing and filtration of frying fat. Liquid oils are rich in unsaturated fatty acids, which leads to faster deterioration. Due to this problem, scientists are trying to find new methods of oil stability enhancement. In the food industry, antioxidative additives, both natural and chemically obtained, are used for improvements in oil stability [4,5,6]. Natural extracts may affect the flavor of fried foods. In the case of savory foods, a positive effect was reported on the overall quality of products [4,7]. However, this may not be acceptable in sweet products.
Currently, oleogelation has become a new oil structuring method. One of the simplest and most environmentally friendly methods is the usage of waxes. They are easily soluble in oil after heating to the melting temperature of waxes, and during the process of cooling, they form a three-dimensional network of crystals [8]. In scientific papers, it was reported that wax oleogels were successfully used as a solid fat replacer in margarine [9], bakery products [10], vegan creams [11], and ice cream [12]. There are still few publications describing the use of oleogels as a frying medium substitute [13,14,15,16]. Most publications reported a positive effect on the oxidative stability of the frying medium. However, in a study conducted by Thakur et al. [15], it was found that the oleogel medium was characterized by higher peroxide values in comparison to oil. All of the studies showed a positive effect of waxes on lower oil uptake [13,14,15,16]. Since oleogels are a novel food system, safety analyses should be performed. One of the substances developed during frying is acrylamide. This substance is classified as potentially carcinogenic and genotoxic [17]. One of the theories describing acrylamide development says that water from fried products contributes to the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols, which release free fatty acids and glycerol. Glycerol can then dehydrate, resulting in the formation of acrolein. Acrolein oxidizes to acrylic acid, which reacts with ammonia from the degradation of amino acids present in fried foods to form acrylamide [18]. Acrylamide may also be produced as a result of the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids [19]. Currently, there is a lack of studies showing the effect of oleogels on acrylamide development in food products.
This study aimed to analyze the effects of rice bran wax and beeswax on the quality of a rapeseed oil-based medium and on the deterioration process. Moreover, oil uptake and acrylamide content in the fries were analyzed.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Frying Materials

The frying media were rapeseed oil (RO) (Kujawski, Bunge Poland, Kruszwica, Poland) and mixtures obtained from it with the addition of waxes: refined rice bran wax (RW) (KahlWax 2811 double-refined, light-colored rice bran wax, Trittau, Germany) and beeswax (BW) (KahlWax 8180 White Food Beeswax, Trittau, Germany). Rice wax was added to the oil in the amounts of 5 g/L (RW 0.5) and 2.5 g/L of oil (RW 0.25), while beeswax was added in the amounts of 10 g/L (BW 1) and 5 g/L of oil (BW 0.5). Wax was poured into the hot oil and mixed until full dissolution. The amount of wax added was determined based on preliminary tests (unpublished data).
Potato fries (Aviko, super long, Gdynia, Poland) were purchased at a local shop. All of the fries used in this study had the same batch number. The initial fat content was 4.9 g/100 g of potato fries.
The frying experiment was repeated 3 times.

2.2. Frying Process

The frying process was performed in a fryer (Filter PRO, Tefal, Rumilly, France) in 3 cycles once per day. One cycle’s duration was 3 h, where 600 g of potato fries were fried in 30 min intervals for 4 min (100 g of potato fries/basket/immersion in oil) in 3 L of the frying medium. The temperature of the frying medium was 175 ± 5 °C. After the frying cycle was completed, the fryer was turned off, and the frying medium was cooled to a room temperature of 21 ± 2 °C and used again the following days for the 2nd and 3rd cycles.

2.3. Analysis of the Quality of the Frying Medium

After each frying cycle, a sample of the frying medium was taken for analysis of the fatty acids profile and the acid values (AVs) and peroxide values (PVs). The FA profile was determined according to the method described by Łepecka et al. [20] using gas chromatography with a flame ion detector and a highly polarized column with BPX 70 phase (Hewlett-Packard 6890 II-FID; Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA). The PV of the samples was determined by the titration method according to PN-EN ISO 3960:2012 standards [21], and the results were expressed in meq O2/kg. The AV was determined according to PN-EN ISO 660:2020 standards [22], and the results were expressed in mg KOH/g of oil.

2.4. Quality Analysis of Fries

2.4.1. Fat Content

The fat content in the products was determined using the gravimetric method and Soxhlet extraction using petroleum ether as a solvent.

2.4.2. Color Analysis of Fries

The color of the fries was measured with a colorimeter (CR-300, Konika Minolta, Tokyo, Japan) in the CIE Lab system. The color of the products was analyzed after the frying cycle was completed. The measurement was performed in 10 repetitions. From the obtained color parameter data, the browning index (BI) was calculated according to the following formula [23]:
BI = (100 (X − 0.31))/0.17
where:
X = (a* + 1.75L*)/(5645L* + a* − 3.01b*)
  • L*—color parameter defining brightness;
  • a*—parameter defining the color from green to red;
  • b*—parameter defining the color from blue to yellow.

2.4.3. Images of Fries

Images of fries were taken after cooling down on the same day they were fried using a scanner (WorkCentre 523A, Xerox, Norwalk, CT, USA) on a white background.

2.4.4. Analysis of Acrylamide Content in Fries

Acrylamide content was determined according to the method described by Roszko et al. [24].

2.5. Statistical Analysis

The obtained research results were subjected to a statistical analysis in the Statistica 13.0 program. The normality of all of the data was determined using the Shapiro–Wilk test (for the distribution p ≥ 0.05). One- and two-way analyses of variance and Ducan’s test were used to determine the statistical differences between groups (p ≤ 0.05).

3. Results

3.1. PVs and AVs of Frying Medium

To analyze basic deterioration processes in frying fats, the acid values (AVs) and peroxide values (PVs) were determined. In this study, after each cycle, a sample of the frying medium was collected for further analysis. In all of the frying media, rapeseed oil and its mixtures with waxes, an increase in the AV was observed during frying. However, it remained at a low level throughout the entire frying period (9 h), taking into account that the limit of AVs for frying fats is 2.5 mg KOH/g according to Polish regulations (Regulation of the Minister of Health of 25 September 2012). The highest value of this parameter for pure rapeseed oil was 0.36 mg KOH/g fat, while the highest value of 0.55 mg KOH/g fat was observed for the BW 1 frying medium after 9 h of heating (Table 1). Moreover, it was observed that the AV increased with the addition of waxes. The reason for this may be because of the presence of free fatty acids in natural wax mixtures. In the study by Guneser et al. [13], it was reported that with the increase in beeswax content in the frying medium, the free fatty acid content was higher in comparison to pure sunflower oil. However, after 7 h of heating, there was no significant difference in free fatty acidity content between the oleogel with 3% beeswax and the control (sunflower oil). In a study conducted by Roman et al. [25], an increase in the content of free fatty acids was observed from 0.09 to 0.15% after 16 h of frying potatoes in high-oleic sunflower oil.
The PV indicates the presence of primary fat oxidation products. In the analyzed frying media, the PV was at a level of 9.01–14.62 meq O2/kg. The number of peroxides fluctuated during frying, probably due to their low stability. According to Codex Alimentarius, the maximum value for refined oils is 8.0 meq O2/kg. This value was exceeded after the first frying cycle (3 h). In studies conducted by Roman et al. [25], after 16 h of frying potatoes, the PV of high-oleic sunflower oil was 4.63 meq O2/kg. The decrease in the PV during frying is caused by the degradation of primary oxidation products (hydroperoxides) and the formation of secondary oxidation products (alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, and acids) (Kobyliński et al. 2016) [26].

3.2. Changes in Fatty Acids Profile during Frying

As a result of high temperatures, changes occur in the composition of fatty acids (FAs). The acid and peroxide numbers indicate the quality of the fat, while the fatty acid composition indicates its nutritional properties. Table 2 lists the FA groups, i.e., saturated fatty acids (SFAs), monounsaturated FA (MUFA), polyunsaturated FA (PUFA), and trans-FA (TFA) isomers, and the most important FA from each group (Table 2).
SFA and MUFA are desirable acids in oils used in heat treatment with high temperatures. Rapeseed oil is characterized by a high content of monounsaturated oleic acid (C18:1), which was 63.4% in the tested oil before frying. With every frying cycle, the levels of SFA, MUFA, and TFA increased, while PUFA levels decreased. This is because unsaturated acids undergo oxidation processes faster as the number of bonds increases. This is confirmed by the research conducted, indicating the fastest reduction in the content of linolenic acid (C18:3) in fat after frying [27]. The addition of antioxidants may have a beneficial effect on the protective properties of PUFA [28]. Based on the literature review, rice bran wax and beeswax have antioxidative properties [29]. However, based on the results obtained in this study, it can be observed that these waxes did not have a protective function against the degradation of PUFA.
From a nutritional point of view, these waxes’ protection against oxidation and degradation is recommended due to the beneficial impact of PUFAs on health, as well as limiting the formation of new, often harmful compounds [30,31].
PUFAs were degraded the fastest in the case of frying media BW 0.5 and RW 0.5, for which the difference in the content of these acids changed by 1.3%. From the table showing changes in the proportions of polyunsaturated and saturated FAs (Table 2), it can be observed that the smallest changes were observed in the cases of RO and RW 0.25. Frying media containing waxes are characterized by a 0.1–0.2% higher content of saturated fatty acids; this is due to the presence of saturated long-chain fatty acids such as lignoceric acid (C24:0). Refined rice bran wax contains approximately 98% monoesters with a carbon chain length of C48–C64; the remaining 2% are free long-chain fatty alcohols and long-chain fatty acids [8]. The chemical composition of beeswax is more heterogenic in comparison to RW. BW is composed of 35–45% monoesters shorter than RW (C40–C48), 15–27% complex wax esters of hydroxy fatty acids linked to another fatty acid, 12–15% hydrocarbons with a chain length of C24–C32, and 1% free fatty alcohols (Bonvehi, 2012) [32].

3.3. Quality Parameters of Fried Potato Fries

3.3.1. Oil Uptake in Fries

Fat absorption is an important factor influencing the nutritional value and taste of products. An increase in fat content in a product increases its caloric value [33]. Along with the absorbed fat, oxidation products present in the frying oil enter the product. This phenomenon is also economically unfavorable, which is why gastronomy uses procedures to limit fat absorption, such as frying in a hot frying pan, using higher temperatures, having shorter frying times, and using fats with appropriate parameters. In breaded products, it is possible to modify their composition with protein and non-protein hydrocolloid (e.g., cellulose derivatives, pectins) additives that reduce fat absorption, but not all products can be subjected to recipe changes [33,34].
In the conducted research, it was observed that the addition of waxes had an impact on the reduction in fat absorption. Taking into account the average values in each frying cycle (Figure 1) and the total fat content values from all cycles, it can be seen that the lowest fat content was observed in fries fried in oil with the addition of beeswax at the level of 10 g/1 L (BW 1). The average difference in fat content between the control sample fries in rapeseed oil without additives (RO) and BW 1 was 1.85%. It can be assumed that the phenomenon of a lower fat uptake can be caused by the formation of a three-dimensional wax network on the surface of a fried product, which stops fat absorption into the product.
Studies by other scientists have also observed a positive effect from the use of oleogels in reducing fat absorption. In Indian Mathiri snacks fried in oleogel, based on soybean oil and carnauba wax at the level of 5%, a decrease in fat content was observed from 27.14 to 19.61% [16], while in the research conducted by Lim et al. [35], it was proven that frying in the same frying medium resulted in a decrease in fat absorption from 22.3 to 19.0% in instant noodles.

3.3.2. Color Parameters of Fried Potato Fries

The color of the fries changed slightly during frying. In the first frying cycle, the color parameters of the fries did not statistically differ between the types of frying media. Color differences were observed only in the second and third frying cycles. Fries fried in RO, RW 0.25, and RW 0.5 did not show statistically significant color changes during frying, which proves their stability. A statistically significant change in color in subsequent frying cycles was observed for fries fried in BW 0.5 and BW 1. In terms of color parameter a*, fries fried in the BW 1 medium had the highest average value (Table 3). A higher value of this parameter indicated a greater intensity of the color red. In the study conducted by Chauhan et al. [16], statistical analysis showed differences in the color parameters of Mathri snacks fried on oleogel with 10% of carnauba wax; however, the addition of 5 and 15% was similar. In the study by Guneser et al. [13], it was found that potato strips fried in sunflower oil-based oleogel with 3% beeswax had a significantly higher value of the L* parameter in comparison with the control sample and 8% wax sample. However, the parameter b*, indicating red coloring, was the highest in the case of the highest content of wax.
The browning index (BI) was calculated based on the average color parameters. The potato fries with the highest value of this parameter were fried in BW 1, characterized by the darkest color in the visual assessment (Figure 2 and Figure 3). According to the statistical analysis, the BI of the fries did not change with the number of frying cycles. The dark color of fried products indicates a higher content of Millard reaction products, i.e., non-enzymatic browning reactions [36].

3.3.3. Acrylamide Content in Fries

The contamination of fries with acrylamide (AA) increased with the frying time. Only in the case of fries fried at BW 0.5 was an inverse relationship observed. For all products, the AA level was high and exceeded the value of 500 μg/kg set in the Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/2158 of 20 November 2017. However, the color did not indicate excessive frying or burning. It was found that fries fried in media with waxes contained more AA than fries fried in rapeseed oil without additives. In the first frying cycle, the lowest contamination of this carcinogenic substance was found in fries fried in RO and RW 0.25, while the highest was in RW 0.5. The formation of AA is one of the products of the Millard reaction, mainly influenced by the presence of reducing sugars and asparagine; these are ingredients present in potatoes. One of the theories says that acrolein (a substance formed as a result of the breakdown of triacylglycerols) may influence the formation of AA [18]. In the case of fries fried in the third cycle, the lowest values were reported for products prepared in RO and BW 0.5 media, which was confirmed by statistical analysis (Figure 4). Studies on acrylamide formation in fried foods showed that an increased acidity (above 0.5 mg KOH/g) in oils can mitigate it [27]. This study is in opposition to these findings. Until now, the effect of waxes on acrylamide formation had not been studied before. It was found that RW may have a stronger effect than BW on AA formation, especially in the case of longer frying times on the same medium. However, other substances present in the waxes, as well as the oil oxidation products of the oil and waxes, may have influenced AA formation [37].
In the studies of Ahmad et al. [38], it was found that the type of frying medium may influence the amount of AA contamination. Those authors found that red palm olein, followed by soybean oil and sunflower oil, had the highest content of this cancerogenic compound, and palm olein had the lowest. However, most of the oil degradation parameters were not significantly different. Another study by Kita et al. [39] showed that with an increase in frying times and degradation processes of palm oil-based frying media, the AA concentration increased. Moreover, researchers found that the addition of TBHQ antioxidants was the most effective in the mitigation of acrylamide formation in fries and potato snacks, but a combination of TBHQ and E330 significantly increased the concentration of this substance, including palm oil–rapeseed oil mixtures without additives.

4. Conclusions

In the literature on oleogels and wax utilization as a frying medium, the results do not show their influence on acrylamide development. This research analyzed the addition of rice bran wax and beeswax on the frying media’s quality parameters, as well as the potato fries’ amount of acrylamide contamination.
The addition of waxes to the oil increased the AV; however, during all of the frying cycles, it was at a relatively low level. All of the frying media were oxidized at a high level even after the first cycle and exceeded the limit of Codex Alimentarius for refined oils. Frying media with the addition of waxes did show a slightly higher content of saturated fatty acids, which came from the additives used. During all of the frying cycles, the proportions of PUFA to SFA decreased, and the ratio of their decrease was at a similar level among regular oil and oil with waxes added. The study showed that the addition of rice bran wax at 2.5 g/L of oil was able to significantly decrease oil uptake in potato fries. The color parameters had statistically significant changes during the second and third frying cycles. Based on browning index calculations, the darkest were fries fried in BW 0.5, which should indicate the highest content of Millard reaction products. However, the highest content of AA in both the first and third frying cycles was in the case of RW 0.5. The lowest and the most similar AA contamination to RO was observed for samples fried in RW 0.25 and BW 0.5.
Based on analyses of the frying media and potato fries, it was found that the best quality was found in rapeseed oil with the addition of rice bran wax at 2.5 g/L of oil (RW 0.25) and beeswax at 5 g/L (BW 0.5).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.O.-G. and S.P.; methodology, S.O.-G., U.S. and M.S.; software, S.O.-G.; validation, S.O.-G.; formal analysis, S.O.-G., U.S. and M.S.; investigation, S.O.-G. and S.P.; resources, S.O.-G. and S.P.; data curation, S.O.-G.; writing—original draft preparation, S.O.-G.; writing—review and editing, S.P.; visualization, S.O.-G.; supervision, S.O.-G. and S.P.; project administration, S.O.-G.; funding acquisition, S.O.-G. and S.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was financed by the Oil Plants Promotion Fund.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to possible use in commercialization processes.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Applsci 14 07578 g001
Figure 1. Fat content in fries in frying cycles and depending on the frying medium used. A, B indicate homogeneous groups determined by Ducan’s test (p-value < 0.05) in relation to the type of medium used for frying.
Figure 1. Fat content in fries in frying cycles and depending on the frying medium used. A, B indicate homogeneous groups determined by Ducan’s test (p-value < 0.05) in relation to the type of medium used for frying.
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Figure 2. The value of the browning index of fries from each frying cycle (n = 10) depending on the frying medium used. A, B, C indicate homogeneous groups determined by Ducan’s test (p-value < 0.05) in relation to frying cycles; z, y, x, v, w indicate homogeneous groups with respect to the type of medium used for frying.
Figure 2. The value of the browning index of fries from each frying cycle (n = 10) depending on the frying medium used. A, B, C indicate homogeneous groups determined by Ducan’s test (p-value < 0.05) in relation to frying cycles; z, y, x, v, w indicate homogeneous groups with respect to the type of medium used for frying.
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Figure 3. Pictures of fries from the first cycle.
Figure 3. Pictures of fries from the first cycle.
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Figure 4. Acrylamide content in fries. A, B, C indicate homogeneous groups determined by Ducan’s test (p-value < 0.05) for 1 frying cycle; a, b, c, d indicate homogeneous groups for the 3rd frying cycle.
Figure 4. Acrylamide content in fries. A, B, C indicate homogeneous groups determined by Ducan’s test (p-value < 0.05) for 1 frying cycle; a, b, c, d indicate homogeneous groups for the 3rd frying cycle.
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Table 1. Changes in acid values (AVs) and peroxide values (PVs) of media during frying.
Table 1. Changes in acid values (AVs) and peroxide values (PVs) of media during frying.
Frying CycleRORO + BW 1RO + BW 0.5RO + RW 0.5RO + RW 0.25
AV (mg KOH/g)
10.28 ± 0.01 a0.42 ± 0.00 A0.32 ± 0.02 a0.30 ± 0.01 A0.27 ± 0.01 a
20.28 ± 0.02 a0.49 ± 0.01 B0.35 ± 0.01 b0.30 ± 0.03 A0.28 ± 0.02 a
30.36 ± 0.04 b0.55 ± 0.02 C0.44 ± 0.03 c0.51 ± 0.04 B0.39 ± 0.04 b
PV (meq O2/kg)
114.30 ± 0.8 c14.62 ± 0.05 C11.75 ± 0.13 c10.63 ± 0.04 B13.04 ± 0.02 c
29.01 ± 0.04 a10.86 ± 0.19 B9.41 ± 0.14 b10.79 ± 0.04 B10.48 ± 0.13 b
311.15 ± 0.06 b9.99 ± 0.33 A9.09 ± 0.06 a10.16 ± 0.06 A9.53 ± 0.53 a
AV—acid value; PV—Peroxide value; a, b, c; A, B, C; a, b, c; A, B; a,b,c—indicate homogeneous groups determined by Ducan’s test (p-value < 0.05) in relation to the type of medium used for frying (columns).
Table 2. Fatty acid composition profiles [%] of frying media during frying.
Table 2. Fatty acid composition profiles [%] of frying media during frying.
Frying CycleSFAC 16:0MUFAC 18:1 PUFAC 18:2C 18:3TFAPUFA/SFA
RO010.44.565.363.426.719.07.60.52.57
110.44.565.663.826.318.87.40.62.53
210.84.565.763.925.918.87.00.72.40
310.94.665.763.925.819.06.70.72.37
BW 1010.64.665.663.826.218.77.50.52.47
110.74.665.663.826.118.67.40.62.44
211.04.765.663.825.818.77.00.72.35
311.14.865.663.825.618.96.60.72.31
BW 0.5010.54.565.663.726.418.87.50.52.51
110.64.565.864.026.018.67.30.62.45
210.94.665.864.025.718.67.00.72.36
311.04.766.064.225.418.76.60.72.31
RW 0.5010.64.565.663.726.518.97.50.52.50
110.64.565.763.926.118.67.40.62.46
210.94.665.864.025.718.76.90.72.36
311.04.766.064.225.418.76.60.72.31
RW 0.25010.54.565.463.626.618.97.50.52.53
110.64.565.763.926.118.67.40.62.46
210.84.565.763.925.918.87.00.72.40
310.94.665.964.125.618.96.60.72.35
RO—rapeseed oil; BW 1—rapeseed oil with beeswax (1 g/100 mL); BW 0.5—rapeseed oil with beeswax (0.5 g/100 mL); RW 0.5—rapeseed oil with rice bran wax (0.5 g/100 mL); RW 0.25 (0.25 g/100 mL).
Table 3. The influence of wax addition and frying cycle (frying time) on the color parameters of fries.
Table 3. The influence of wax addition and frying cycle (frying time) on the color parameters of fries.
1 Cycle2 Cycle3 Cycle
L*a*b*L*a*b*L*a*b*
RO
60.80 Aa0.90 Aa29.77 Aa61.91 ABa1.02 ABa31.35 BCa60.65 ABa1.69 BCa29.79 Aa
BW 1
61.96 Ab2.30 Aa31.16 Aab61.73 ABb2.19 Ba32.48 Cb58.95 Aa3.05 Ca30.05 Aa
BW 0.5
62.20 Aa0.60 A31.13 Aa63.04 Bab0.32 Aa31.69 Cc61.65 Ba−0.26 Aa29.55 Aa
RW 0.5
61.18 Aa0.98 Aa28.93 Aa61.03 ABa0.86 ABa29.09 ABa60.29 ABa2.47 Cb29.68 Aa
RW 0.25
62.03 Aa0.86 Aa29.31 Aa60.55 Aa0.84 ABa28.20 Aa61.86 Ba0.49 ABa30.35 Aa
A–C indicate homogeneous groups determined by Ducan’s test (p-value < 0.05) in relation to the type of medium used for frying (columns); a–c indicate homogeneous groups with respect to frying cycles (rows).
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MDPI and ACS Style

Onacik-Gür, S.; Ptasznik, S.; Siekierko, U.; Szczepańska, M. The Effect of Waxes on Rapeseed Oil Quality and Acrylamide Development in Potato Fries during Deep-Frying. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 7578. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177578

AMA Style

Onacik-Gür S, Ptasznik S, Siekierko U, Szczepańska M. The Effect of Waxes on Rapeseed Oil Quality and Acrylamide Development in Potato Fries during Deep-Frying. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(17):7578. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177578

Chicago/Turabian Style

Onacik-Gür, Sylwia, Stanisław Ptasznik, Urszula Siekierko, and Magdalena Szczepańska. 2024. "The Effect of Waxes on Rapeseed Oil Quality and Acrylamide Development in Potato Fries during Deep-Frying" Applied Sciences 14, no. 17: 7578. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177578

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