Advanced Nanotechnological Approaches for Biofilm Prevention and Control
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biofilm Concepts and Formation
3. Biofilm Characterization
3.1. Quantitative Assessment Methods
3.1.1. Direct Methods
Method | Advantages | Disadvantages | References |
---|---|---|---|
Colony-forming unit (CFU) counting | Allows viable counting. Special equipment or dyes are not required. May be performed in most laboratory scenarios. | Lengthy and requires repetitive tasks. Involves complex and indirect procedures that increase ambiguity and uncertainty. Detects only viable bacteria. Requires removal of bacteria through sonication or matrix-degrading enzymes. | [2,28,29,32,33,34] |
4′,6′-diamino-2-fenil-indol (DAPI) staining | Enables measurement of the total cells on the surface. Particularly effective for handling a large number of samples. | Imaging is restricted to two dimensions. Needs the use of fluorochromes, epifluorescence microscopy, and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Cannot distinguish between live and dead bacterial cells. | [28,35] |
Live/Dead staining | Enables counting and distinguishing between live and dead bacteria. Particularly suitable for handling a large number of samples. | Imaging is restricted to two dimensions. Fluorochromes are sensitive to light. Requires epifluorescence and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). | [31,36,37] |
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) | Enables distinguishing and quantifying the sessile population. Analyzes the spatial distribution within biofilms without damaging their structure. Discriminates microorganism species using fluorescent labeling with specific oligonucleotide probes. | Requires specific probes, epifluorescence, and CLSM. Involves costly equipment. Protocol optimization is necessary for various microbiology applications. | [2,38] |
3.1.2. Indirect Methods
Method | Advantages | Disadvantages | References |
---|---|---|---|
Dry mass | Rapid technique. | Heat or precipitation is required to fully eliminate water molecules. | [28] |
Crystal Violet staining | Enables the measurement of total biomass. | Cannot assess biofilm viability because deceased bacteria retain staining. | [28,32,44,45,46] |
Tetrazolium salt | Enables measurement of cellular metabolic activity. Detection and quantification using colorimetric methods. | Expensive. Exhibits challenges related to variability within and between species. | [28,44] |
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) bioluminescence | ATP detection enables the identification of metabolically active cells involved in both building up and breaking down processes. Rapid, real-time assessment of viable cell density. | Expensive. High variability. Requirement for regular luminometer calibration to maintain precision. | [28,47,48,49] |
Total protein determination | Provides a holistic view of the biofilm composition by quantifying all proteins present. | Protein levels vary depending on the species, age, and culture conditions, resulting in fluctuations in the data obtained. | [28] |
Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) | Enables continuous monitoring of biofilm growth. Offers detailed insights into how biofilms interact with surfaces. Allows for easy adjustment of variables like flow rate and temperature. Provides a quick and non-invasive way to study biofilms. Highly sensitive for tracking the accumulation of mass (ng/cm2) over time. | Requires specialized equipment, electronics, software, and consumables. Changes in temperature and pressure can affect the resonant frequency and thus impact data collection. | [28,40,41,42] |
Resazurin assay | Enables determination of cells’ metabolic activity by measuring the reduction of resazurin, indicating whether cells are active metabolically or not. | Differences in metabolic rates between planktonic and biofilm forms can introduce considerable inaccuracies. | [33,43] |
3.2. Qualitative Assessment Methods
4. Biofilm-Associated Infections
5. Nanocarriers as a Strategy to Fight Biofilms
5.1. Targeting of Antimicrobial Substances
5.2. Biofilm-Penetrating Efficiency
5.3. Antimicrobial Protection
5.4. Destabilization of EPS
5.5. Affinity to Bacterial Cells
5.6. Synergy with Antimicrobial Drugs
6. Lipid-Based Nanocarriers
6.1. Liposomes
6.2. Quatsomes
6.3. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
6.4. Micelles
Type of Nanocarrier | Composition | Encapsulated Compound | Bacteria | Mechanism of Action | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Liposomes | DOPA coated with CaP | Acridine orange, TMP | Staphylococcus aureus | Controlled drug release, enhanced liposomal stability | [162] |
DPPC and DPPG | Gentamicin | Pseudomonas aeruginosa and S. aureus | Controlled drug release, enhanced liposomal stability | [163] | |
Soy phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol, DC-Chol, DSPE-PEG2000 | Clarithromycin | MRSA | Enhanced phagocytosis of microbial cells | [164] | |
DOPE and DC-Chol | Tobramycin | P. aeruginosa | Enhanced antimicrobial activity | [165] | |
Soy lecithin, cholesterol | Cinnamon oil | MRSA | Enhanced chemical stability and antimicrobial activity | [166] | |
Quatsomes | Cholesterol | Cetylpyridinium chloride | S. aureus and P. aeruginosa | Enhanced anti-biofilm activity | [103] |
Quaternary bicephalic surfactant (StBAclm) | Vancomycin | MRSA | Enhanced antibacterial kinetics | [104] | |
Solid lipid nanoparticles | GMS, P, SA | Rifampin | Staphylococcus epidermidis | Enhanced efficiency in biofilm degradation and killing bacteria | [167] |
Stearic acid, Tristearin, Soya lecithin | Cefuroxime axetil | S. aureus | Enhanced bioavailability and antimicrobial activity | [110] | |
Compritol 888 ATO | Curcumin | S. aureus and Escherichia coli | Enhanced antimicrobial activity | [168] | |
Surfactant from Corynebacterium zerosis NS5 | - | E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, S. mutans | Enhanced biocompatibility Enhanced antimicrobial activity | [169] |
7. Polymeric-Based Nanocarriers
7.1. Polymeric Nanoparticles
7.2. Polymeric Micelles
7.3. Dendrimers
8. Metallic-Based Nanocarriers
Mettalic Nanoparticles
Type of Nanocarrier | Composition | Bacteria | Mechanism of Action | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
AgNPs | Silver and leaf extract of Convolvulus arvensis | S. aureus and P. aeruginosa | Enhanced chemical stability | [176] |
Silk fibroin/nanohydroxyapatite hydrogels with silver nanoparticles | S. aureus, MRSA, S. epidermidis, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa | Intrinsic antimicrobial action | [137] | |
AuNPs | Silk fibroin/nanohydroxyapatite hydrogels with gold nanoparticles | S. aureus, MRSA, S. epidermidis, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa | Intrinsic antimicrobial action | [137] |
ZnONPs | Hydroxyapatite porous granules and zinc oxide nanoparticles | S. aureus and S. epidermidis | Non-specified | [177] |
Nanohydroxyapatite with zinc oxide nanoparticles | S. aureus and E. coli | Intrinsic antimicrobial action | [2] | |
Iron oxide | S. epidermidis | Non-specified | [136] | |
Magnetic nanoparticles | Iron oxide | E. coli and S. aureus | Enhanced antimicrobial activity | [178] |
9. Silica-Based Nanocarriers
10. Quantum Dots
11. Challenges and Future Perspectives
12. Conclusions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Nanocarriers | Benefits | Drawbacks | References |
---|---|---|---|
Liposomes | Easy to modify. Fusion with bacterial cell. Reduce side effects. | Poor storage stability. | [96,97,98,99,100,101] |
Quatsomes | Biocompatibility. Good stability. Ability to efficiently deliver therapeutic agents to target sites. | Unknown in vivo targeting. | [102,103,104,105] |
Solid lipid nanoparticles | Sustained release. Improved drug stability. | Poor solubility. Limitation of drug load. | [106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113] |
Lipid micelles | Effectively deliver antimicrobial agents to the biofilm matrix. | Poor storage stability. | [114,115] |
Polymeric nanoparticles | Biocompatibility. Controlled drug release. High stability in the body. | Poor storage stability. | [116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124] |
Polymeric micelles | Effectively deliver antimicrobial agents to the biofilm matrix. | Poor storage stability. | [125] |
Dendrimers | Controlled release of the antibiotic, targeting the bacteria more effectively. | Unknown in vivo behavior. | [126,127,128,129,130,131,132] |
Metallic nanoparticles | Potent antimicrobial effects. | Potentially cytotoxic. | [133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148] |
Magnetic nanoparticles | Physical targeting. Enhanced capacity to penetrate biofilm. Biofilm mechanical destruction. | Potentially cytotoxic. | [134,136,140,141,145,149] |
Silica nanoparticles | Biocompatibility and stability. | Limited understanding of the long-term safety implications. | [150,151,152,153,154,155] |
Quantum dots | Photothermal and photodynamic effects. Controlled release. Good penetration capability. | Potentially cytotoxic. | [156,157,158] |
Type of Nanocarrier | Composition | Encapsulated Compound | Bacteria | Mechanism of Action | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Polymeric nanoparticles | PLGA PVA | Ciprofloxacin | S. aureus and P. aeruginosa | Enhance drug bioavailability, controlled release | [173] |
PLGA | Carvacrol, rifampicin, moxifloxacin, levofloxacin | S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, and S. epidermidis | Enhanced penetration of antibiotics to the deeper layer of the biofilm | [121] | |
PLGA | Clarithromycin, rifampicin, ciprofloxacin | - | Enhance drug bioavailability | [170] | |
Polymeric micelles | PLGA-b-mPEG and PLGA-b-p(Tpy)5 | Terpyridine | P. aeruginosa | Fe(II) chelating by Tpy–micelles | [125] |
Dendrimers | Liquid crystalline dendrimers, core–shell tecto dendrimer, glycodendrimers, polyglycerol, PAMAM, PEPE, PPI, PAMAMOS | - | S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa | Enhanced encapsulation | [132] |
PAMAM | - | B. cereus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, S. oralis | Enhanced antimicrobial activity | [171] |
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Ferraz, M.P. Advanced Nanotechnological Approaches for Biofilm Prevention and Control. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 8137. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188137
Ferraz MP. Advanced Nanotechnological Approaches for Biofilm Prevention and Control. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(18):8137. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188137
Chicago/Turabian StyleFerraz, Maria Pia. 2024. "Advanced Nanotechnological Approaches for Biofilm Prevention and Control" Applied Sciences 14, no. 18: 8137. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188137