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Article

A 3D Seismotectonic Model and the Spatiotemporal Relationship of Two Historical Large Earthquakes in the Linfen Basin, North China

by
Zhaowu Guo
1,
Renqi Lu
1,*,
Zhujun Han
1,
Guanshen Liu
1,
Feng Shi
1,
Jing Yang
1 and
Xiaobing Yan
2
1
State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics, Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100029, China
2
Shanxi Earthquake Administration, Taiyuan 030021, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(18), 8412; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188412
Submission received: 14 August 2024 / Revised: 10 September 2024 / Accepted: 13 September 2024 / Published: 19 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Paleoseismology and Disaster Prevention)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The Shanxi Graben is a transitional zone between the Ordos Block and North China Plain with complex structures and frequent earthquakes. Six earthquakes with M ≥ 7.0 have been recorded in the area, including the 1303 Hongtong M 8 and 1695 Linfen M 7.8 earthquakes in the Linfen Basin. Research on these two large earthquakes, closely related in time and space, is lacking. Our objective was to use deep seismic reflection profiles and 3D velocity structure data from previous research, along with seismological observation results, to interpret the geological structure near the source of the two earthquakes. A 3D geometric model of the seismogenic fault was constructed, and the relationships among the deep and shallow structures, deep seismogenic environment, and two large earthquakes were explored. Differences in seismogenic environment between the southern and northern Linfen Basin were identified. The distribution of small earthquakes in the southern Linfen Basin was scattered, and the overall distribution was at depths <25 km. The small earthquakes in the northern part of the basin were dense and concentrated at depths of 25–35 km. Low-velocity layers at an approximate depth of 15–20 km in the southern basin led to differences in seismogenesis between the two regions. Based on the area of the 3D geometric model of the Huoshan Fault, the maximum magnitude of an earthquake caused by fault rupture is Mw 7.7, so the magnitude of the 1303 Hongtong earthquake might be overestimated. Numerical simulation results of Coulomb stress showed that the 1303 Hongtong earthquake had a stress-loading effect on the 1695 Linfen earthquake. The change in Coulomb rupture stress was 1.008–2.543 bar, which is higher than the generally considered earthquake trigger threshold (0.1 bar). We created a new 3D source model of large earthquakes in the Linfen Basin, Shanxi Province, providing a reference and typical cases for risk assessment of large earthquakes in different regions of the Shanxi Graben.

1. Introduction

Studying the seismic structures and spatiotemporal relationships of two or more large (M ≥ 7.0) intraplate earthquakes that occurred in close spatial proximity within a short period of time is important [1,2,3,4,5]. The Sumatran Fault in western Indonesia has produced multiple Mw ≥ 7.0 earthquakes in the last century [6]. The seismic structures that produced the 2008 Wenchuan Ms 8.0 and 2013 Lushan Ms 7.0 earthquakes are both related to those of the Longmenshan Fault; however, these two earthquakes were independent rupture events in the middle and southern segments of the Longmenshan Fault, respectively [1,6]. Similarly, the 2023 Turkey Mw 7.8 earthquake triggered activity on its northern side, which caused a Mw 7.5 earthquake on the Çardak–Sürgü Fault [7,8]. As shown by these examples, understanding the relationships between adjacent large earthquakes is crucial for seismic hazard analysis and assessment.
The Shanxi Graben is located in the central part of the North China Craton, situated between the Ordos and North China Block. This area features a series of NNE-trending fault basins [9,10,11] (Figure 1) and is an important part of the fault system around the Ordos Block [12,13]. Current GPS observation data show that the blocks on both sides of the Shanxi Graben rotate counterclockwise, and the Shanxi Graben is located in a strong right-lateral strike-slip stress concentration area and strain zone [12,14]. Historical records reveal the occurrence of several strong earthquakes in the region (Figure 1) [9,15,16,17,18]. The 1303 Hongtong M 8 and 1695 Linfen M 7.8 earthquakes occurred in the Linfen Basin, in the southern part of the Shanxi Graben [19,20,21]. The seismically active area exhibits extensive Quaternary deposits [15,22,23]. Previous studies suggest that the faults in this area have a low slip rate [12,14,24] and a long earthquake recurrence interval [25,26]. A comprehensive analysis of the tectonics and the seismogenic environment associated with the two large earthquakes in the Linfen Basin, using geophysical data such as seismic reflection profiles and velocity structures, and the development of a reasonable three-dimensional seismo-tectonic model are essential for understanding the dynamic mechanisms of earthquakes.
On 17 September 1303, the Hongtong M 8 earthquake occurred in the Linfen Basin. This event was followed by several significant aftershocks over the subsequent years, resulting in more than 200,000 deaths [27,28,29,30,31]. Most current studies consider the Huoshan Fault as the seismogenic fault of the Hongtong earthquake (Figure 2a) [32,33]. On 18 May 1695, 392 years after the Hongtong earthquake, a large earthquake occurred again in the Linfen Basin, only 45 km away from the epicentre of the Hongtong earthquake, causing more than 50,000 deaths [34]. There are different beliefs regarding the seismogenic faults of the Linfen M 7.8 earthquake. Some studies consider the Guojiazhuang Fault (F5) near the epicentre as the seismogenic fault of the Linfen M 7.8 earthquake (Figure 2a) [35,36,37]. However, some studies show that the scale of the Guojiazhuang Fault is not sufficient to cause the Linfen M 7.8 earthquake [38]. Thus, the seismogenic faults of the Linfen earthquake remain unclear. Additionally, current studies on the Hongtong and Linfen earthquakes primarily focus on geological surveys of surface faults, with insufficient analysis of deep structures. Therefore, analysing the deep seismogenic environment, relationships, and seismogenic tectonic model of these two major earthquakes is important for assessing potential seismic hazards in the Linfen area.
To understand the dynamic mechanisms of earthquakes more completely, our objectives were to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the tectonics and seismogenic environment of these two earthquakes in the Linfen Basin using geophysical data such as seismic reflection profiles and velocity structures and develop a reasonable three-dimensional (3D) seismotectonic model. By reinterpreting deep seismic reflection profiles [22,23] and combining them with a regional 3D velocity model and seismological observation data, we aimed to reveal the deep structures and seismogenic environments of the earthquake areas and develop a 3D geometric model of the main active faults in the Linfen Basin. We explored the influence of the 1303 Hongtong earthquake on the 1695 Linfen earthquake based on Coulomb stress theory and provided the first 3D seismic structure model of the study area. This model provides an important reference for simulating regional earthquake ruptures and strong ground shaking, predicting earthquake hazards, and other related analyses [39,40,41,42,43,44].
Applsci 14 08412 g001
Figure 1. Topographic map of China (a). Location and seismic structure map of the Shanxi Graben (b). White and blue boxes indicate the locations of Figure 1b and Figure 2, respectively. Red circles represent earthquakes, black boxes represent cities, and black lines represent exposed surface faults. The green and blue lines represent the isoseismals for the 1303 and 1695 earthquakes, respectively, with the data sourced from the Atlas of Shanxi earthquake isoseisma, compiled by the Shanxi Province Institute of Earthquake Engineering Investigation [45]. (AB: Amurian Block, OB: Ordos Block, SCB: South China Block, NCB: North China Block, SCS: South China Sea, TP: Tibetan Plateau, DB: Datong Basin, XB: Xinding Basin, TB: Taiyuan Basin, LB: Linfen Basin, YB: Yuncheng Basin).
Figure 1. Topographic map of China (a). Location and seismic structure map of the Shanxi Graben (b). White and blue boxes indicate the locations of Figure 1b and Figure 2, respectively. Red circles represent earthquakes, black boxes represent cities, and black lines represent exposed surface faults. The green and blue lines represent the isoseismals for the 1303 and 1695 earthquakes, respectively, with the data sourced from the Atlas of Shanxi earthquake isoseisma, compiled by the Shanxi Province Institute of Earthquake Engineering Investigation [45]. (AB: Amurian Block, OB: Ordos Block, SCB: South China Block, NCB: North China Block, SCS: South China Sea, TP: Tibetan Plateau, DB: Datong Basin, XB: Xinding Basin, TB: Taiyuan Basin, LB: Linfen Basin, YB: Yuncheng Basin).
Applsci 14 08412 g001
Applsci 14 08412 g002
Figure 2. (a) Geologic map and (b) division of structural units in Linfen Basin (F1: Huoshan Fault, F2: Fushan Fault, F3: Luoyunshan Fault, F4: Hongtong–Subao Fault, F5: Guojiazhuang Fault. Light blue lines represent rivers, and black circles represent cities (LS: Lingshi, XZ: Xinzhi, HT: Hongtong, LF: Linfen, FS: Fushan, XF: Xiangfen, HM: Houma, LLS: Lvliangshan, THS: Taihangshan). Focal mechanism solutions are presented in a lower hemisphere projection [46].
Figure 2. (a) Geologic map and (b) division of structural units in Linfen Basin (F1: Huoshan Fault, F2: Fushan Fault, F3: Luoyunshan Fault, F4: Hongtong–Subao Fault, F5: Guojiazhuang Fault. Light blue lines represent rivers, and black circles represent cities (LS: Lingshi, XZ: Xinzhi, HT: Hongtong, LF: Linfen, FS: Fushan, XF: Xiangfen, HM: Houma, LLS: Lvliangshan, THS: Taihangshan). Focal mechanism solutions are presented in a lower hemisphere projection [46].
Applsci 14 08412 g002

2. Geological Setting

The Shanxi Graben system is located east of the Ordos Block and west of the North China Block and acts as a transitional zone between the blocks [11,47] (Figure 1a). Formed during the late Pliocene, the Shanxi Graben system is the youngest of the peripheral fault basins of the Ordos Block and comprises several NE- and ENE-trending grabens and half-grabens arranged in a dextral oblique pattern. The overall trend is NNE, and the map view exhibits an ‘S’ shape. The system includes five large subsidence basins (from north to south): the Datong, Xinding, Taiyuan, Linfen, and Yuncheng basins [11,48] (Figure 1b). Before the Pliocene, the Linfen Basin was located in the southern part of the Graben system, with the entire Shanxi Block undergoing uplift and erosion. In the early Pliocene, the Linfen Basin began to rift and formed its initial shape. The boundary faults have remained active until the present [49].
The Linfen Basin primarily comprises six secondary structures: the Xinzhi, Fushan, and Xiangfen uplifts and Hongtong, Linfen, and Houma sags (Figure 2a). The overall trend in the basin is NNE, with the Taiyuan Basin to the north and the Yuncheng Basin to the south. The eastern and western sides of the basin are flanked by uplifted regions of the Taihangshan and Lvliangshan faulted blocks [10,49] (Figure 2b). Large active NNE-trending faults are located along the eastern and western boundaries of the basin, forming a typical ‘two mountains enclosing one basin’ structural pattern (Figure 2a). The western basin boundary is the Luoyunshan Fault (F3), which trends NNE but turns to NWW at the southern end of the basin and dips toward the basin. The eastern basin boundary is the Huoshan Fault (F1), which trends nearly N–S and dips toward the basin.
The Hongtong–Subao Fault (F4) is oriented WNW in the central Linfen Basin and divides the basin into northern and southern parts. The northern part is primarily controlled by the Huoshan Fault (Figure 2a), the depocenter of which is located near Hongtong. The southern part is primarily controlled by the Luoyunshan Fault, the depocenter of which is located near Linfen [23,50]. Since the Cenozoic, this region has undergone significant subsidence [48]. The Hongtong earthquake occurred in the Hongtong Sag in the northern part of the basin, while the Linfen earthquake occurred in the Linfen Sag in the southern part of the basin (Figure 2b).

3. Data and Methods

Based on the surface traces of active faults and deep seismic reflection profile, velocity profile, and small earthquake relocation data, we constructed a 3D structure model of the main active faults in the Linfen Basin. On the basis of this model, we conducted research on the magnitudes of historical earthquakes and Coulomb stress simulation.

3.1. Deep Seismic Reflection Profile

The seismic reflection profile can reveal deep complex geological structures; in 2012, a deep seismic reflection profile was acquired in the southern part of the Linfen Basin (profile A–A’ in Figure 3 and Figure 4), with a length of approximately 55 km [49]. Data collection employed a 30 m spacing between lines, 240 m spacing between shots, 800 receiver lines, and 50-fold coverage. Seismic waves were generated using borehole blasting sources at depths of 25–30 m and an average main frequency of 10 Hz [22].

3.2. Three-Dimensional Model of Velocity Structure

In this study, the North China velocity model (http://www.craton.cn/data, accessed on 21 November 2022), which can reveal the structural features of faults in the deep crust, was used to perform structural analysis. The model was divided into eastern and western regions. The eastern model collected original data from 42 Deep Seismic Sounding (DSS) profiles and used the Kriging interpolation method to construct a 3D crustal model in HBCrust1.0 with a 0.25° × 0.25° × 10 km grid size (0.25° × 0.25° × 1 km for depths < 10 km) [51]. The western model collected teleseismic records from 681 seismic stations during 2000–2011 and from 370 CNSN stations during 2011–2013. We used the receiver-function imaging method to construct the 3D crustal model [52].

3.3. Earthquake Relocation

The relocated small earthquakes were used to analyse the deep seismic environment in the Linfen Basin. This dataset was based on seismic phase observations from January 1981 to June 2018 in Shanxi Province and adjacent regions. Initially, the absolute positioning method (Hypo2000) was used for absolute localisation. Hypo2000 is a tool used for earthquake location that is based primarily on the least squares method for determining the position of an earthquake source. It utilises observed arrival times of seismic waves, combined with the geometric arrangement of seismic networks, and optimises the positioning through an iterative process to improve accuracy. Subsequently, the double-difference relative positioning method (HypoDD) was used to optimise the absolute positioning results further. The HypoDD is a tool for earthquake source relocation that improves accuracy by refining the source spacing. It is mainly used for earthquake sequence analysis and employs a complex inversion algorithm to enhance source location results. This process yielded a dataset of relocated small earthquakes (M ≤ 3.0) with an average error of less than 1.2 km [53].

3.4. Construction of the Three-Dimensional Model

We first used ArcGIS 10.7 software to process the profiles, crustal velocity model, surface traces of active faults, historical earthquake catalogues [19], and 14,381 relocated seismic events in the Linfen Basin from 1 January 1981 to 1 June 2018 (Figure 3) into the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system and converted the data into a format compatible with the Skua GOCAD (2017) 3D modelling software. We then imported these data into the SKUA-GOCAD 3D modelling platform to construct a 3D workspace for the Linfen Basin (Figure 4). The P-wave velocity data were converted to a 3D seismic cube (also known as a ‘voxel’); this ‘voxel’ was divided into 100 grids in three directions (X, Y, Z). The 3D working area was subjected to high-density grid refinement, in which 24 E–W projection profiles were created to represent the geometric features of the faults accurately. The projection profiles were spaced 6 km apart. Subsequently, a 3D seismic source model (Figure 10) was built using the discrete smooth interpolation in GoCAD though the “make surface” step, which was constructed to analyse the seismogenic structures and seismic environments of large historical earthquakes in the Linfen Basin.

3.5. Coulomb Stress Simulation

Numerous studies have shown that Coulomb rupture stress can reveal the triggering relationships between earthquakes, the effects on subsequent aftershocks, and the seismic hazard of surrounding faults [52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61]. This study calculated the influence of the 1303 Hongtong earthquake on the 1695 Linfen earthquake based on Coulomb stress theory.
After an earthquake occurs, the accumulated stress on the fault does not disappear. Instead, part of the stress is transferred and concentrated on surrounding faults, influencing the occurrence of subsequent earthquakes and the Coulomb stress changes on these surrounding faults. The Coulomb failure stress change (∆CFS) can be defined as follows:
Δ CFS   =   Δ τ   +   μ Δ σ n
where Δτ represents the shear stress change on the receiving fault caused by an earthquake; ∆σn is the normal stress change, with the tension being positive; and µ is the coefficient of friction, which is typically set to 0.4 [62,63]. When ΔCFS > 0, the stress change may promote the occurrence of subsequent earthquakes or increase the load on surrounding faults; conversely, when ΔCFS < 0, it may inhibit the occurrence of subsequent earthquakes or reduce the load on surrounding faults.

4. Results

4.1. Characteristics and Interpretation of Deep Seismic Reflection Profiles

The deep seismic reflection profile A–A’ is situated in the southern part of the Linfen Basin (Figure 3), oriented NW–SE, with a length of approximately 55 km, spanning the length of the basin [22].
The profile reveals that the Linfen Basin is a typical ‘half-graben’ basin (Figure 5b). From west to east, the main faults include the Luoyunshan (F3), Fenxi (F6), Quting (F7), Dayang West (F9), Dayang East (F10), West Zuo (FX), and Fushan (F2). Su et al. interpreted the deep seismic reflection profile by applying sediment thickness constraints and normal fault-related folding principles [23]. The results show that the Luoyunshan and Fushan faults are the boundary faults in the southern part of the basin. The Luoyunshan Fault is a ‘listric’ normal fault with shallow steep and deep gentle angles. It is nearly vertical at the surface, with a dip angle that flattens to approximately 37° at a depth of approximately 3.5 s two-way travel time (TWT) in the upper crust and continues to flatten at greater depths. Other faults intersect near-surface sediments in a normal faulting manner, controlling graben formation in the basin. These faults converge downward into the Luoyunshan Fault at the base of the upper crust (Figure 5b).
At TWT 9–9.5 s, the wave group with strong reflected energy (blue dashed line) is interpreted as the boundary between the middle and lower crust. At TWT 12.5~14.0 s, it is horizontally continuous, then vertically extends for approximately 1.0 to 1.2 s, and an upward-arching reflection band is visible on the profile. This is referred to as the crust–mantle transition zone, which has a thickness of approximately 3.0 to 3.6 km. The bottom boundary of the crust–mantle transition zone (pink band) corresponds to the Moho surface (Figure 5b). The vertical undulations of the Moho surface are significantly greater than those of the boundary between the middle and lower crust. This suggests that the tectonic dynamics and crustal deformation in the Linfen Basin primarily originate from deeper sources.

4.2. Spatial Distribution of Relocated Earthquakes

Current seismic monitoring data indicate that this region is seismically active, with numerous events occurring in the middle and lower crust [18,64]. This suggests that the deep structures of the Linfen Basin exert a significant influence on seismic activity.
In this study, three velocity profiles (B–B’, C–C’, and D–D’) were selected. Profiles C–C’ and D–D’ pass through the epicentral locations of the 1303 Hongtong and 1695 Linfen earthquakes. Profile B–B’ crosses the entire basin in a nearly N–S direction (Figure 3 and Figure 4). The detection depth is ~50 km, which shows the distributions of velocity structures at different depths. A distinct low-velocity body (Vp = 6.2 km/s) is present at a depth of 10–20 km in the southern basin. This low-velocity body is distributed between the Linfen Sag and Xiangfen Uplift (Figure 6).
Most small earthquakes in this region occurred in the Linfen Basin, and only a few occurred in mountainous areas (Figure 3). With the Hongtong–Subao Fault (F4) as a boundary, small earthquakes were concentrated north of the fault, accounting for ~36.5% of all earthquakes. Small earthquakes were more dispersed south of the fault, accounting for ~63.5% of all earthquakes (Figure 3).
We projected all small earthquakes within the Linfen Basin onto the velocity structure profile (B–B’) to investigate the depth distribution of the earthquakes (Figure 6). The 1695 Linfen earthquake occurred in the Linfen Sag in the southern part of the basin. Earthquakes were relatively infrequent in this region, and small earthquakes were more dispersed. The predominant rupture layer was located at a depth of 15–25 km, and some clustering was observed below the low-velocity body (Figure 6 and Figure 7b). The 1303 Hongtong earthquake occurred in the Hongtong Sag in the northern part of the basin. Earthquakes in this area occurred more frequently, with small earthquakes being more densely distributed. The predominant rupture layer for the earthquakes was located at a depth of 25–35 km (Figure 6 and Figure 7a). The two large earthquakes occurred in different velocity structural zones. Based on the spatial distributions of small earthquakes and velocity variations, it can be inferred that the northern and southern parts of the basin have different seismogenic environments.

4.3. Velocity Structure Changes in the Linfen Basin

The 1303 Hongtong earthquake occurred in a high P-wave velocity region along the Huoshan Fault (F1) (Figure 8). The bottom interface of the velocity layer shows a significant mutation in the lateral direction (high in the east and low in the west), and the Hongtong earthquake occurred at the location of an abrupt change in P-wave velocity. Small earthquakes in the middle-lower crust are relatively densely distributed and are concentrated at locations where P-wave velocity changes abruptly and where the velocity change zone favours strain accumulation [20,21,51,65,66]. When the stress reaches a certain level, the fault activates and causes an earthquake (Figure 8).
The Luoyunshan Fault trends SE and is an upward-steepening, downward-gentle, ‘listric’ normal fault [23]. The surface exposure extends downward with a relatively steep dip angle, and the Quting and Fenxi faults converge with the Luoyunshan Fault at a depth of 10 km (Figure 4). A distinct intracrustal low-velocity body was observed within the upper crust (at a depth of 12–21 km). Some researchers have suggested that the Linfen M 7.8 earthquake occurred above this low-velocity body. This body represents a velocity transition zone that is conducive to strain accumulation, and faults passing through this region of the upper crust are considered to be structurally favourable for the occurrence of strong earthquakes (Figure 6 and Figure 9) [20,21,37,51,66].

4.4. Three-Dimensional Model of Active Faults in the Linfen Basin

Based on the interpretation of the seismic reflection and velocity structure profiles, we used the Skua-GOCAD 3D modelling platform to construct 3D models of the Huoshan, Luoyunshan, and Fushan faults (Figure 10).
In three dimensions, the Huoshan Fault trends NNE and dips toward the WNW, with a total length of ~85 km, a downward depth extent of approximately 35 km, and an area of ~2655 km2 (Figure 10). The Luoyunshan and Fushan faults trend NNE and dip E and W toward each other, respectively. The Fushan Fault intersects the Luoyunshan Fault at depth. The Luoyunshan Fault has a length of ~50.8 km and a downward depth extent of ~14.5 km, covering an area of ~2426 km2. The Fushan Fault is ~36.4 km in length and has a downward depth extent of ~12.5 km, covering an area of ~433 km2. The low-velocity body developed at a depth of 15–20 km in the southern part of the basin, and the 1695 Linfen earthquake occurred above this low-velocity body.

5. Discussion

5.1. Differences in the Seismic Environment of the Linfen Basin

A low-velocity layer exists at a depth of approximately 16–21 km in the southern part of the Linfen Basin (Figure 6 and Figure 10). This feature is commonly found in other basins in the North China region. These low-velocity layers are considered the boundary between the upper and lower crust [59,67,68,69].
The Linfen earthquake is located in the Linfen Sag in the southern part of the Linfen Basin. Its epicentre lies in the velocity transition zone above the low-velocity body [20,21,51,65,66]. This interface medium easily accumulates strain energy, and when the strain energy exceeds its bearing limit, the medium fractures, releasing energy and causing earthquakes [37]. The distribution of small earthquakes in the southern part of the basin is relatively scattered, with small earthquakes primarily distributed at depths of less than 25 km (Figure 6 and Figure 9). The Hongtong earthquake occurred in the Hongtong Sag in the northern part of the Linfen Basin, with its epicentre in a high-velocity structural area with high P-wave velocities. Small earthquakes in this area are relatively dense and show good clustering, primarily distributed at depths of 15–35 km (Figure 6 and Figure 8). The two major earthquakes occurred in different velocity structure regions (Figure 6). From the distribution of small earthquakes (Figure 6 and Figure 7) and the characteristics of velocity changes, it is observed that the southern and northern parts of the Linfen Basin have significantly different seismic environments. We propose that the low-velocity layer in the southern part leads to the differences in seismic environments between the southern and northern parts of the basin.
The Huoshan Fault has exhibited vertical motion of 1–1.5 mm/year over the past 7000 years [33]; however, the Fushan Fault has shown a vertical motion of only 0.56 mm/year [70]. The vertical motions in the southern and northern parts of the basin differ substantially. The vertical motions of various faults directly correlate with extensional tectonics in the North China region [33,70]. Mantle upwelling has induced extension in the region [71,72,73]. Therefore, we posit that the low-velocity layer in the southern Linfen Basin reduces the effect of mantle upwelling on vertical fault motion, resulting in the observed disparity in the vertical motion between the southern and northern parts of the basin.

5.2. Magnitude Estimation of the 1303 Hongtong Earthquake

Xu et al. (2018) determined the surface rupture length of the 1303 Hongtong earthquake as 98 km through surface geological investigations and paleo-trench studies [33]. They estimated the magnitude of this earthquake, as between Mw 7.1 and Mw 7.6 [33]. The three-dimensional model of the main active faults in the Linfen Basin reveals that the Huoshan Fault has a total length of ~85 km, a downward depth extent of ~35 km, and an area of ~2655 km2 (Figure 10).
We estimated the seismic magnitudes using the empirical formula that relates fault rupture area to seismic magnitude:
M W = 4.07 + 0.98   ∗   log ⁡ ( R A )
M W = 4 3 log ⁡ ( R A ) + 3.07 ± 0.04 RA   >   537 km 2
where RA is the fault rupture area. We estimated the maximum earthquake magnitude caused by the rupture of the Huoshan Fault. Equation (2) [74] shows that the maximum rupture magnitude of the Huoshan Fault can reach Mw 7.4; Equation (3) [75] calculates the maximum rupture magnitude as Mw 7.6–7.7.
The results indicate that the previously estimated magnitude of M 8 [19,76] is relatively high. The previously estimated magnitude was determined based on historical earthquake intensity and casualty reports, lacking direct observational data for validation. Notably, the magnitudes of the 1556 Huaxian, 1793 Pingluo, and 1920 Haiyuan earthquakes have all been overestimated [77,78,79].
In terms of future seismic hazard, the reduced magnitude estimate indicates that an earthquake smaller than previously thought caused the intensity of shaking and amount of damage that was observed in 1303. In addition, the reduced magnitude estimate implies a higher frequency of such earthquakes; a shorter recurrence interval is needed to accommodate a given strain rate across the Huoshan Fault with Mw 7.7 events than with Mw 8 events.

5.3. Relationship between Two Historical Large Earthquakes

After a strong earthquake occurs, the stress state of the seismogenic area changes, which may delay or promote the occurrence of earthquakes on active faults in adjacent areas. Numerous studies on earthquake-triggering relationships have shown that earthquakes can interact with each other [80,81,82]. In this study, Coulomb stress analysis was conducted using the Coulomb 3.4 software package. During the process, Poisson’s ratio was set to 0.25, and the friction coefficient, to 0.4 [53,54]. The fault slip distribution of the Hongtong earthquake was used as the source fault, and the fault geometry of the Linfen earthquake was used as the receiving fault. The Coulomb stress changes caused by the 1303 Hongtong earthquake on the 1695 Linfen earthquake were calculated at depths of 15 km and 20 km, respectively.
Previous studies have revealed that the seismogenic fault of the 1303 Hongtong earthquake was the Huoshan Fault [33,76]. However, there is controversy regarding the seismogenic fault of the 1695 Linfen earthquake, and the relationship between the two earthquakes is not clear. Studies on historical earthquakes indicate that the Luoyunshan Fault produced five earthquakes in the past 37,000 years, and the most recent of which was a M 6.5 event in 649 C.E. [83]. Thus, it is unlikely that the Luoyunshan Fault was responsible for the 1695 Linfen earthquake (Figure 2a). Some scholars consider that the Guojiazhuang Fault is the seismogenic fault of the 1695 Linfen earthquake [17,35,36,37]. However, the Guojiazhuang Fault is only 25 km long and has been considered incapable of producing a M 7.8 earthquake. Researchers have speculated that the combined rupture of the Guojiazhuang and Luoyunshan faults produced the 1695 Linfen earthquake [38]. This conflicts with the findings of seismic studies that focused on the Luoyunshan Fault [83]. No shallow crustal faults matching the 1695 Linfen M 7.8 earthquake have been observed in the southern part of the basin.
Shen et al. [46] summarised the focal mechanism solution parameters of 49 earthquakes in North China (M ≥ 6.5), including the focal parameters of the Hongtong and Linfen earthquakes, as shown in Table 1. However, the hypocenter depths of these two historical earthquakes are uncertain. The seismogenic fault of the 1303 Hongtong earthquake is the Huoshan Fault; however, its rupture length is controversial. Through surface geological surveys, Xu and Deng (1990) determined the length of the fault zone to be 45 km [76]. However, Xu et al. (2018) estimated the length of the fault zone to be 90 km based on ancient exploration trench research [33]; the modelling length for this study was 85 km.
Because of the uncertainties in the hypocenter depth and rupture length, we selected rupture lengths as 45 km and 85 km and the hypocenter depths as 15 km and 20 km for the simulation of the 1303 Hongtong earthquake. We used the rupture geometric structure of the 1695 Linfen earthquake as the receiving fault (Table 1), with an effective friction coefficient of 0.4. We assessed the impact of Coulomb stress changes caused by the 1303 Hongtong earthquake on the 1695 Linfen earthquake.
The simulation results show that the change in Coulomb rupture stress (ΔCFS) at the epicentre of the 1695 earthquake is greater than 0.1 bar. The maximum value was 2.543 bar, and the minimum value was 1.008 bar at the reference depths of 15 km and 20 km, respectively, with different source parameters of the 1303 earthquake (Table 2). Most M ≥ 5.0 earthquakes in the Linfen and Taiyuan basins after the 1303 Hongtong earthquake occurred in the stress-loaded area (Figure 11 and Figures S1–S3), indicating that the 1303 Hongtong earthquake not only significantly affected the stress loading of the 1695 Linfen earthquake but also influenced earthquakes (M ≥ 5.0) in the Taiyuan and Linfen basins. Similar Coulomb stress-triggering events have been studied in seismic sequences at the Eastern Bayan Har Block, the 2017 Iran earthquake, the 2022 Mexico earthquake, and the 2022 Menyuan earthquake [82,84,85,86].

6. Conclusions

This study constructed a 3D geometric model of the main active faults in the Linfen Basin by interpreting deep seismic reflection profiles and velocity structure data. Based on this model, we elucidated the seismic environment of the Linfen Basin and the relationship between two large historical earthquakes. We reached the following conclusions:
1. The 1695 Linfen earthquake occurred in the velocity transition zone above the low-velocity body, and a few small earthquakes occurred in this area. However, the 1303 Hongtong earthquake occurred in an area with high P-wave velocity and a high density of small earthquakes. This indicates differences in the seismic environments between the two earthquakes. A low-velocity body developed at a depth of 16–21 km in the southern part of the Linfen Basin, leading to differences in seismogenic environments between the northern and southern parts of the Linfen Basin, which is in good agreement with the current distribution of small earthquakes.
2. Based on the 3D geometric model of the Huoshan Fault, the maximum fracture area was calculated, and then the maximum magnitude of the 1303 Hongtong earthquake was estimated. The results show that the magnitude of the 1303 Hongtong earthquake was overestimated.
3. Based on the 3D model, we performed Coulomb stress analysis between the two large earthquakes. The results show that the 1303 Hongtong earthquake had an obvious stress-loading effect on the 1695 Linfen earthquake.
In this study, we constructed a 3D seismic structure model of the Linfen Basin based on existing data. In subsequent research, we will continuously update the model with an abundance of data to attain a more precise model. We can deploy a deep seismic profile in the northern part of the Linfen Basin to constrain the geometry of faults in the northern basin, thereby analysing the differences in deep structures between the southern and northern parts of the basin more effectively.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/app14188412/s1. Figure S1. Coulomb stress effect of the 1303 Hongtong earthquake (hypocenter depth of 15 km and rupture length of 45 km) on the 1695 Linfen earthquake. The yellow pentagram represents the 1303 Hongtong earthquake, the red pentagram represents the 1695 Linfen earthquake, red circles indi-cate earthquakes after 1303 (M ≥ 5), solid black lines represent faults, and solid green lines represent rupture faults. Cross-sections at depths of (a) 15 km and (b) 20 km. Figure S2. Coulomb stress effect of the 1303 Hongtong earthquake (hypocenter depth of 15 km and rupture length of 85 km) on the 1695 Linfen earthquake. The yellow pentagram represents the 1303 Hongtong earthquake, the red pentagram represents the 1695 Linfen earthquake, red circles indicate earthquakes after 1303 (M ≥ 5), solid black lines represent faults, and solid green lines represent rupture faults. Cross-sections at depths of (a) 15 km and (b) 20 km. Figure S3. Coulomb stress effect of the 1303 Hongtong earthquake (hypocenter depth of 20 km and rupture length of 45 km) on the 1695 Linfen earthquake. The yellow pentagram represents the 1303 Hongtong earthquake, the red pentagram represents the 1695 Linfen earthquake, red circles indi-cate earthquakes after 1303 (M ≥ 5), solid black lines represent faults, and solid green lines represent rupture faults. Cross-sections at depths of (a) 15 km and (b) 20 km.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, R.L. and Z.H.; formal analysis, Z.G. and G.L.; investigation, J.Y. and F.S.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.G., R.L. and Z.H.; writing—review and editing, R.L. and Z.G.; funding acquisition, R.L., F.S. and X.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the project of Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration (IGCEA2205), and the Linfen Development and Reform Commission (1521044025).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Lu Research Group of the Institute of Geology of the China Earthquake Administration for the help and support of this study. We express great appreciation to the anonymous reviewers and editors for improving the quality of this paper.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 3. Seismic structure and profile distribution map of the Linfen Basin. Red lines represent the Holocene active faults, and black lines represent the Pre-Holocene fault. F1: Huoshan Fault, F2: Fushan Fault, F3: Luoyunshan Fault, F4: Hongtong–Subao Fault, F5: Guojiazhuang Fault. The A–A’ is the deep seismic reflection profile; B–B’, C–C’, and D–D’ are velocity tomography imaging profiles. The pink dots represent the relocation data of small earthquakes from 1981 to 2018.
Figure 3. Seismic structure and profile distribution map of the Linfen Basin. Red lines represent the Holocene active faults, and black lines represent the Pre-Holocene fault. F1: Huoshan Fault, F2: Fushan Fault, F3: Luoyunshan Fault, F4: Hongtong–Subao Fault, F5: Guojiazhuang Fault. The A–A’ is the deep seismic reflection profile; B–B’, C–C’, and D–D’ are velocity tomography imaging profiles. The pink dots represent the relocation data of small earthquakes from 1981 to 2018.
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Figure 4. Three-dimensional data in the study area. Red and black lines represent Holocene and Pre-Holocene active faults, respectively (F1: Huoshan Fault, F2: Fushan Fault, F3: Luoyunshan Fault, F4: Hongtong–Subao Fault). A–A’ is the deep seismic reflection profile, whereas B–B’, C–C’, and D–D’ are velocity tomography imaging profiles. Green spheres indicate the 1695 Linfen M 7.8 earthquake, yellow spheres indicate the 1303 Hongtong M 8 earthquake, red spheres indicate M ≥ 6.0 earthquakes, and pink dots indicate the small earthquake relocations from 1981 to 2018.
Figure 4. Three-dimensional data in the study area. Red and black lines represent Holocene and Pre-Holocene active faults, respectively (F1: Huoshan Fault, F2: Fushan Fault, F3: Luoyunshan Fault, F4: Hongtong–Subao Fault). A–A’ is the deep seismic reflection profile, whereas B–B’, C–C’, and D–D’ are velocity tomography imaging profiles. Green spheres indicate the 1695 Linfen M 7.8 earthquake, yellow spheres indicate the 1303 Hongtong M 8 earthquake, red spheres indicate M ≥ 6.0 earthquakes, and pink dots indicate the small earthquake relocations from 1981 to 2018.
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Figure 5. Deep seismic profile A–A’ and the structural explanation. (a) Deep seismic profile A–A’ and (b) interpretation scheme for the deep seismic profile. The interpretation was modified based on the solutions provided by Li et al. [22] and Su et al. [23]. The red solid lines represent faults, and the red arrows indicate the direction of fault movement. The blue dashed line represents the boundary between the middle and lower crust, the pink dashed line represents the Moho, and the pink band represents the crust–mantle transition zone. The purple line represents the Quaternary bottom boundary (TQ), the blue line represents the Neogene bottom boundary (TN), and the black line represents the basement of the sedimentary cover (Tg). F3: Luoyunshan Frontal Fault; F6: Fenxi Fault; F7: Quting Fault; F9: Dayang West Fault; F10: Dayang East Fault; F2: Fushan Fault; FX: Xizuo Fault.
Figure 5. Deep seismic profile A–A’ and the structural explanation. (a) Deep seismic profile A–A’ and (b) interpretation scheme for the deep seismic profile. The interpretation was modified based on the solutions provided by Li et al. [22] and Su et al. [23]. The red solid lines represent faults, and the red arrows indicate the direction of fault movement. The blue dashed line represents the boundary between the middle and lower crust, the pink dashed line represents the Moho, and the pink band represents the crust–mantle transition zone. The purple line represents the Quaternary bottom boundary (TQ), the blue line represents the Neogene bottom boundary (TN), and the black line represents the basement of the sedimentary cover (Tg). F3: Luoyunshan Frontal Fault; F6: Fenxi Fault; F7: Quting Fault; F9: Dayang West Fault; F10: Dayang East Fault; F2: Fushan Fault; FX: Xizuo Fault.
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Figure 6. P-wave velocity tomographic imaging of profile B–B’. The brown spheres represent small earthquakes in the region from 1981 to 2018, the green spheres represent the 1695 Linfen M 7.8 earthquake, and the yellow spheres represent the 1303 Hongtong M 8 earthquake. F4: Hongtong–Subao Fault.
Figure 6. P-wave velocity tomographic imaging of profile B–B’. The brown spheres represent small earthquakes in the region from 1981 to 2018, the green spheres represent the 1695 Linfen M 7.8 earthquake, and the yellow spheres represent the 1303 Hongtong M 8 earthquake. F4: Hongtong–Subao Fault.
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Figure 7. Depth–frequency distribution map of small earthquake relocations from 1981 to 2018 in the (a) northern and (b) southern parts of the basin.
Figure 7. Depth–frequency distribution map of small earthquake relocations from 1981 to 2018 in the (a) northern and (b) southern parts of the basin.
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Figure 8. Velocity structure tomographic imaging profile of the Hongtong earthquake (C–C’). The black solid lines are velocity contour lines, the red solid line represents a normal fault within the cover layer, and the red dashed line illustrates the extension of the Huoshan Fault in the middle-lower crust. Brown spheres represent small earthquakes in the region from 1981 to 2018, while yellow spheres represent the 1303 Hongtong M 8 earthquake (F1: Huoshan Fault).
Figure 8. Velocity structure tomographic imaging profile of the Hongtong earthquake (C–C’). The black solid lines are velocity contour lines, the red solid line represents a normal fault within the cover layer, and the red dashed line illustrates the extension of the Huoshan Fault in the middle-lower crust. Brown spheres represent small earthquakes in the region from 1981 to 2018, while yellow spheres represent the 1303 Hongtong M 8 earthquake (F1: Huoshan Fault).
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Figure 9. Velocity structure tomographic imaging profile of the Linfen earthquake (D–D’). The black solid lines represent velocity contours, and the red solid line represents positive faults in the cover layer. Brown spheres represent small earthquakes in the region from 1981 to 2018; green spheres represent the 1695 Linfen M 7.8 earthquake. (F2: Fushan Fault, F3: Luoyunshan Fault, F6: Fenxi Fault, F7: Quting Fault, and FX: Xizuo Fault).
Figure 9. Velocity structure tomographic imaging profile of the Linfen earthquake (D–D’). The black solid lines represent velocity contours, and the red solid line represents positive faults in the cover layer. Brown spheres represent small earthquakes in the region from 1981 to 2018; green spheres represent the 1695 Linfen M 7.8 earthquake. (F2: Fushan Fault, F3: Luoyunshan Fault, F6: Fenxi Fault, F7: Quting Fault, and FX: Xizuo Fault).
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Figure 10. Three-dimensional seismic structural model for the two large earthquakes in the Linfen Basin. The yellow spheres represent the 1303 Hongtong earthquake, and the green spheres represent the 1695 Linfen earthquake. The solid red line at the top of the fault represents the fault trace, and the solid grey lines represent burial depth contour lines. The yellow three-dimensional body represents the low-velocity body. The Hongtong–Subao Fault is the boundary between the northern and southern parts of the basin.
Figure 10. Three-dimensional seismic structural model for the two large earthquakes in the Linfen Basin. The yellow spheres represent the 1303 Hongtong earthquake, and the green spheres represent the 1695 Linfen earthquake. The solid red line at the top of the fault represents the fault trace, and the solid grey lines represent burial depth contour lines. The yellow three-dimensional body represents the low-velocity body. The Hongtong–Subao Fault is the boundary between the northern and southern parts of the basin.
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Figure 11. Coulomb stress effect of the 1303 Hongtong earthquake (hypocenter depth of 20 km and rupture length of 85 km) on the 1695 Linfen earthquake. The yellow pentagram represents the 1303 Hongtong earthquake; the red pentagram represents the 1695 Linfen earthquake; red circles indicate earthquakes after 1303 (M ≥ 5); solid black lines represent faults; and solid green lines represent rupture faults. Cross-sections at depths of (a) 15 km and (b) 20 km.
Figure 11. Coulomb stress effect of the 1303 Hongtong earthquake (hypocenter depth of 20 km and rupture length of 85 km) on the 1695 Linfen earthquake. The yellow pentagram represents the 1303 Hongtong earthquake; the red pentagram represents the 1695 Linfen earthquake; red circles indicate earthquakes after 1303 (M ≥ 5); solid black lines represent faults; and solid green lines represent rupture faults. Cross-sections at depths of (a) 15 km and (b) 20 km.
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Table 1. Rupture parameters of the 1303 Hongtong and 1695 Linfen earthquakes.
Table 1. Rupture parameters of the 1303 Hongtong and 1695 Linfen earthquakes.
No.TimeMacro LocationLong. (°E)Lat. (°N)MFocal Mechanism
DayMonthYearStrike (°)Dip (°)Rake (°)
125091303Hongtong111.736.3819570−153
218051695Linfen111.536.07.7528560−16
The datea, epicentre locations, and magnitudes were obtained from the China Earthquake Catalog [19], and other parameters, for example, focal mechanisms, were obtained from Shen et al. [46].
Table 2. Coulomb stress calculation results for different seismic source parameters.
Table 2. Coulomb stress calculation results for different seismic source parameters.
Hypocenter Depth (km)Rupture Length (km)Reference Depth (km)ΔCFS (Bar)Reference
1545152.356Figure S1a
202.543Figure S1b
85151.527Figure S2a
201.291Figure S2b
2045152.035Figure S3a
201.951Figure S3b
85151.194Figure 11a
201.008Figure 11b
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Guo, Z.; Lu, R.; Han, Z.; Liu, G.; Shi, F.; Yang, J.; Yan, X. A 3D Seismotectonic Model and the Spatiotemporal Relationship of Two Historical Large Earthquakes in the Linfen Basin, North China. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 8412. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188412

AMA Style

Guo Z, Lu R, Han Z, Liu G, Shi F, Yang J, Yan X. A 3D Seismotectonic Model and the Spatiotemporal Relationship of Two Historical Large Earthquakes in the Linfen Basin, North China. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(18):8412. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188412

Chicago/Turabian Style

Guo, Zhaowu, Renqi Lu, Zhujun Han, Guanshen Liu, Feng Shi, Jing Yang, and Xiaobing Yan. 2024. "A 3D Seismotectonic Model and the Spatiotemporal Relationship of Two Historical Large Earthquakes in the Linfen Basin, North China" Applied Sciences 14, no. 18: 8412. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188412

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