Physicochemical Properties, Organic Acid, and Sugar Profiles in Edible and Inedible Parts of Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) Cultivars Harvested in Korea

Abstract

Parsnip, a root vegetable from the Apiaceae family, is rich in dietary fiber, pectin, and starch but remains relatively unfamiliar in South Korea. This study investigated the physicochemical properties of two Korean-grown parsnip cultivars, ‘Warrior’ and ‘Albion’, focusing on their organic acid and sugar compositions. The ‘Warrior’ cultivar has higher firmness and water content but lower SSC compared to ‘Albion’. In ‘Warrior’, malic and lactic acids were the main organic acids, while ‘Albion’ had predominant oxalic and malic acids. Malic acid was also the primary organic acid in the inedible parts of ‘Warrior’, and oxalic acid in ‘Albion’. In the edible parts of both cultivars, sucrose was identified as the main sugar. In ‘Warrior’, the levels were 88.59%, 90.35%, and 79.13% in the cortex, pith, and skin, respectively, while in ‘Albion’, the levels were 88.56%, 64.40%, and 67.39%. ‘Warrior’ showed higher total sugar content in its cortex (6.66%) compared to ‘Albion’ (3.67%). These results highlight the beneficial compounds in parsnips and suggest their potential for improving dietary strategies and health.

1. Introduction

Parsnips, like celery, carrots, and cilantro, are root vegetables in the Apiaceae family and are similar to carrots in appearance. They are known as a “white food” with a high content of dietary fiber, pectin, and sugar, and are used as an ingredient in food and animal feed. Due to its high starch and sugar content, parsnip root is widely utilized in human consumption, particularly in the preparation of soups, cakes, muffins, and puddings. Interestingly, they are cool-season vegetables called sugar carrots or white carrots in Korea. Parsnips have been cultivated since Greek and Roman periods and have been used in many cuisines as a sweetener and for medicinal purposes. Parsnips, a root vegetable with a sweet taste, contain potassium, folate, vitamins, minerals, and various polyphenols associated with antioxidants. Parsnips vary in root length and color depending on the cultivars [1,2]. They are typically harvested during the winter and stored at low temperatures for their best quality [3]. Parsnips are known to contain many bioactive substances such as flavonoids, polyacetylene, and furanocoumarin [4]. To date, the antioxidant activity of essential oils extracted from parsnip [5], changes in sugar and starch of parsnip under cold storage conditions [6], development of sauces using parsnip [7], and composition and properties of homogenized parsnip suspension [8] have been reported. It is known that sucrose is the primary sugar in parsnips, while the levels of glucose and fructose are significantly lower, ranging from 0.45% to 0.75%, with a reducing sugar to non-reducing sugar ratio of approximately 1:10. In contrast, carrots have higher glucose and fructose content, around 15% [1]. However, the research reports are extremely limited compared to those of other root vegetables. Parsnips are known to have several cultivars, including Javelin, Warrior, Albion, and Viking [2]. The ‘Warrior’ cultivar used in this study is characterized by its white exterior and root system, and is a vigorous, fast-growing cultivar that can be harvested until late fall. The ‘Albion’ cultivar is characterized by its white skin and slow discoloration. Often used in processed foods, the roots of this cultivar are thin, oval-shaped, and heavy, and the ‘Albion’ cultivar can be harvested from fall to mid-winter. Both the ‘Warrior’ and ‘Albion’ cultivars of parsnips are highly resistant to rhizoctonia and have an average growing season of 120 days or less after sowing [9]. Similarly to other root vegetables, parsnip is rich in soluble fiber, which contributes to lowering cholesterol levels and reducing the risk of developing diabetes. Additionally, fiber supports digestion, alleviates constipation, and helps prevent gastrointestinal disorders [10]. Research has shown that parsnip contains several antioxidant compounds, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, carotenoids, and vitamin C. These compounds have been found to exhibit a range of antioxidant activities, including scavenging of free radicals, inhibition of lipid peroxidation, and protection against DNA damage [5,10]. Falcarinol and falcarindiol are two major polyacetylenes that have been identified in parsnip [11,12]. These compounds have been shown to have potential health benefits, including chemopreventive effects against colon cancer and anti-inflammatory activities [6]. Despite the potential health benefits of parsnip polyacetylenes, their biosynthesis and regulation in this plant species are not well understood.

Therefore, the objective of this study was to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the physicochemical properties, as well as the sugar and organic acid profiles, of two parsnip cultivars harvested in Korea. This investigation aims to elucidate the specific qualities and compositional differences between the cultivars, with a focus on understanding how these factors influence their potential health benefits and overall nutritional value.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials for Experiment

Two parsnip cultivars, ‘Warrior’ and ‘Albion’, were harvested at K-Food Bio farm in Yecheon, Gyeongsangbuk-do. The ‘Warrior’ cultivar was harvested in November 2021, taking advantage of cooler autumn temperatures to enhance sugar content and quality. The ‘Albion’ cultivar, initially planned for early autumn, was replanted in spring after poor growth and harvested in July 2022 to examine the effects of warmer conditions on its quality. The harvested parsnips were immediately transferred to the laboratory.

They were then sorted to eliminate damaged samples and selected for uniform size. The physicochemical qualities of the parsnips, such as color, firmness, soluble solid content (SSC), pH, and water content, were analyzed on the day of the harvest. Photos were also taken using a digital camera (Nikon D40, Nikon Corp., Tokyo, Japan) for a visual comparison of appearance and color analysis. The parsnips were divided into edible parts (cortex, pith, and skin) and inedible parts (stem and leaf) as shown in Figure 1. Then, they were rapidly frozen with liquid nitrogen and stored at −60 °C until they were used for extraction and analysis.

2.2. Sample Extraction

For sample extraction, 80% acetone was used for the edible parts and 80% methanol for the inedible parts. Solvent was added to 60 g of the frozen sample, which was then homogenized three times for 3 min each using a commercial blender (JB 3060, Braun, Neu-Isenburg, Germany). The homogenized mixture was filtered through Whatman #2 paper (Whatman International Ltd., Kent, UK), and the filtrate was concentrated with a rotary evaporator (N-1300, Eyela, Tokyo, Japan) at 45 °C. The concentrated extracts were stored at −60 °C for analysis of sugar and organic acid profiles [13,14].

2.3. Color

The skin color of parsnips was measured using a colorimeter (Chroma meter CR-400, Minolta, Tokyo, Japan), with values expressed as L* (lightness, ranging from dark to light on a 0–100 scale), a* (red to green spectrum), and b* (yellow to blue spectrum). These parameters were selected as they are commonly used in the food industry to assess visual quality, which influences consumer preferences and marketability. Three measurements were taken from the equatorial region of each sample, and the average values were calculated [13,14].

2.4. Firmness, Soluble Solid Content (SSC), pH, and Water Content

Firmness was assessed by performing a puncture test on each parsnip with intact skin using a fruit penetrometer (FHM-1, Dementra Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) equipped with a 12 Φ × 10 mm cone-shaped probe. The resistance encountered by the probe was measured in Newtons (N). For SSC and pH measurements, the edible parts of the parsnip were homogenized with a commercial blender (GMFC-670, Hanil, Seoul, Republic of Korea). SSC was measured at room temperature using a refractometer (PAL-1, Atago Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) and expressed in °Brix. pH was determined with a pH meter (Starter300, Ohaus Co., Ltd., Parsippany, NJ, USA) [13,14]. To determine water content, 4 g of the sample was weighed and dried in an oven (HB-501M, Hanbaek Scientific Technology, Bucheon, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea) at 100 °C until the weight stabilized, after which the percentage of water content was calculated [15].

2.5. Quantification of Individual Organic Acids

Organic acids were analyzed using a modified method from Hwang et al. [13]. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Agilent 1200 series, Agilent Technologies, Wilmington, DE, USA) with a diode array detector was employed for individual organic acid analysis. The extract was diluted 10-fold with distilled water and filtered through a 0.45 µm syringe filter. A Prevail organic acid column (250 × 4.6 mm i.d., 5 µm, Hichrom Ltd., Reading, UK) was used at 25 °C. The HPLC mobile phase consisted of 25 mM KH₂PO₄ adjusted to pH 2.3 with H₃PO₄, and the diode array detector was set to 210 nm with a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min and an injection volume of 10 µL. Calibration was achieved with standard solutions (4, 20, and 100 mg/100 g) of oxalic acid (purity 95%; CAS No. 87-69-4), malic acid (95%; CAS No. 6915-15-7), lactic acid (98%; CAS No. 79-33-4), acetic acid (99.7%; CAS No. 64-19-7), citric acid (99.5%; CAS No. 77-92-9), succinic acid (99.5%; CAS No. 110-15-6), and fumaric acid (99%; CAS No. 110-17-8), which were procured from Sigma-Aldrich (Saint Louis, MO, USA). Results were reported as mg/100 g of fresh weight (FW).

2.6. Quantification of Individual Sugars

The quantification of sugars in parsnip flesh was carried out following the method described by Yang et al. [14]. The sample extracts were diluted 10-fold with distilled water and then filtered through a 0.45 µm syringe filter. HPLC analysis was performed using an UltiMate 3000 HPLC system (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) equipped with a RefractoMax 520 refractive index (RI) detector (ERC Inc., Saitama, Japan). Individual sugars were separated using an Asahipak NH2P-50 4E column (250 × 4.6 mm i.d., 5 µm, Waters Corp., Milford, MA, USA) at 30 °C. The mobile phase consisted of 75% acetonitrile in distilled water, with a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min and an injection volume of 10 µL. Sugar standards of glucose (purity 99.7%; CAS No. 50-99-7), fructose (100%, CAS No. 57-48-7), sucrose (purity 100%, CAS No. 57-50-1), and maltose (purity 99.2%, CAS No. 6363-53-7) were obtained from Sigma (St. Louis, USA). Calibration curves were established with standard solutions at three concentrations (100, 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/100 g), and results were reported in %.

2.7. Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis of the experimental results was conducted using SPSS 27 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA), with analysis of variance (ANOVA) performed to assess significance. Duncan’s multiple range test was used to test the significance of differences among the samples (p < 0.05). A one-tailed Student t-test was employed to compare the two cultivars for statistical significance. The data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation from triplicate measurements.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Color

The color results of the parsnip cultivars ‘Warrior’ and ‘Albion’ were shown in

Table 1. Hunter L *, a *, and b * color values of parsnip (Pastinaca sativa).

Cultivar	L * (Lightness)	a * (Redness)	b * (Yellowness)
‘Warrior’	90.70 ± 0.21 a	0.45 ± 0.42 a	28.72 ± 0.91 a
‘Albion’	77.52 ± 0.57 b	−0.48 ± 0.29 b	24.84 ± 1.63 b

Results are the mean values ± standard deviation from three measurements (n = 3); means in the same column with superscript with different letters (a and b) are significantly different at p < 0.05.

. The degree of lightness, represented by the L* values, was 90.70 ± 0.21 for ‘Warrior’ and 77.52 ± 0.57 for ‘Albion’, while the redness, represented by the a* values, was 0.45 ± 0.42 for ‘Warrior’ and −0.48 ± 0.29 for ‘Albion’. The yellow color, represented by the b* value, was 28.72 ± 0.91 for the ‘Warrior’ and 24.84 ± 1.63 for the ‘Albion’. The ‘Warrior’ cultivar showed significantly higher L*, a*, and b* values than the ‘Albion’. Parsnips have a color range from cream to white, depending on the cultivar, and both ‘Warrior’ and ‘Albion’ have a white appearance. Therefore, the L* value, which is a measure of lightness, is high for both cultivars. Carotenoids found in fruits and vegetables provide them with their yellow and orange colors and are among the phytochemicals that include β-carotene. Parsnips contain various carotenoids, including β-carotene, which give them their yellow color based on their concentration. The cultivars ‘Warrior’ and ‘Albion’ had greater b* values for yellow than a* values for red, suggesting that the β-carotene content of parsnips contributed to their yellow color [16].

3.2. Firmness, Soluble Solid Content (SSC), pH, and Water Content

The firmness, SSC, pH, and water content of ‘Warrior’ and ‘Albion’ parsnip cultivars are detailed in

Table 2. Firmness, soluble solid content (SSC), pH, and water content of parsnip (Pastinaca sativa).

Cultivar	Firmness (N)	SSC (°Brix)	pH	Water Content (%)
‘Warrior’	7.84 ± 0.03 a	9.83 ± 0.15 b	6.69 ± 0.16 a	81.71 ± 0.83 a
‘Albion’	7.18 ± 0.17 b	12.49 ± 0.90 a	5.80 ± 0.05 b	73.28 ± 2.67 b

Results are the mean values ± standard deviation from three measurements (n = 3); means in the same column with superscript with different letters (a and b) are significantly different at p < 0.05.

. ‘Warrior’ demonstrated a firmness of 7.84 ± 0.03, which was significantly higher than the 7.18 ± 0.17 observed for ‘Albion’. SSC, which measures the concentration of dissolved solids including sugars (fructose, glucose, sucrose), organic acids (malic, citric, succinic, acetic), and other trace components such as phenols, amino acids, ascorbic acid, and minerals [17], was 9.83 ± 0.15 for ‘Warrior’ and significantly higher at 12.49 ± 0.90 for ‘Albion’. The pH values were 6.69 ± 0.16 for ‘Warrior’ and 5.80 ± 0.05 for ‘Albion’, with ‘Warrior’ showing a markedly higher pH. The pH levels can be influenced by factors such as cultivar type, the maturity stage at harvest, and the levels of organic acids present [18,19]. Sipahioglu and Barringer [18] found that the water content of parsnips was 78.66 ± 0.48%, which is consistent with our results. Likewise, Jovanovic-Malinovska et al. [17] reported a water content of 83 ± 0.70% in parsnips, aligning with our findings. However, ‘Warrior’ exhibited a higher water content of 81.71 ± 0.83%, compared to 73.28 ± 2.69% in ‘Albion’. The ‘Warrior’ cultivar was harvested in winter on November 24, while ‘Albion’ was harvested in summer on July 27. These differences in water content may be due to variations in temperature and relative humidity during the respective harvest periods [20].

3.3. Organic Acid Content

The organic acid compositions of the ‘Warrior’ and ‘Albion’ parsnip cultivars in both edible and inedible parts are shown in

Table 3. Individual organic acid contents of parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) edible parts (cortex, pith, and skin).

Cultivar	Part	Concentration (mg/100 g FW)
		Oxalic Acid	Malic Acid	Lactic Acid	Acetic Acid	Citric Acid	Succinic Acid	Fumaric Acid	Total Sum
‘Warrior’	Cortex	33.66 ± 1.59 e	137.32 ± 19.58 e	133.19 ± 6.09 c	N.D.	68.56 ± 4.48 e	7.76 ± 1.09 c	1.45 ± 0.16 d	381.94
	Pith	44.64 ± 6.64 d	203.94 ± 12.42 d	230.97 ± 13.20 b	N.D.	226.56 ± 11.52 a	11.92 ± 0.15 a	1.55 ± 0.01 d	719.58
	Skin	24.74 ± 0.34 f	362.99 ± 9.71 a	305.37 ± 37.00 a	N.D.	203.03 ± 25.75 b	N.D.	2.15 ± 0.20 c	898.28
‘Albion’	Cortex	887.95 ± 1.21 b	277.61 ± 2.02 c	N.D.	23.95 ± 0.51 b	65.12 ± 0.43 e	8.24 ± 0.51 c	4.27 ± 0.19 ab	1267.14
	Pith	393.27 ± 1.02 c	299.44 ± 5.13 b	N.D.	23.35 ± 0.05 b	117.22 ± 0.69 d	11.08 ± 0.69 ab	4.07 ± 0.05 b	848.43
	Skin	1669.34 ± 6.34 a	295.73 ± 1.87 bc	N.D.	35.48 ± 0.73 a	165.55 ± 0.53 c	10.36 ± 0.31 b	4.36 ± 0.06 a	2180.82

Results are the mean values ± standard deviation from three measurements (n = 3); means in the same column with superscript with different letters (a, b, c, d, e, and f) are significantly different at p < 0.05. N.D; not detected (LOQ: lactic acid 0.60 mg/100 g, acetic acid 0.41 mg/100 g, and succinic acid 0.32 mg/100 g).

and

Table 4. Individual organic acid contents of parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) inedible parts (stem and leaf).

Cultivar	Part	Concentration (mg/100 g FW)
		Oxalic Acid	Malic Acid	Lactic Acid	Acetic Acid	Citric Acid	Succinic Acid	Fumaric Acid	Total Sum
‘Warrior’	Stem	32.56 ± 1.08 d	597.48 ± 1.42 b	263.97 ± 8.92 a	N.D.	79.24 ± 3.56 c	N.D.	251.32 ± 0.84 a	1224.57
	Leaf	44.83 ± 0.78 c	937.71 ± 6.71 a	189.39 ± 3.31 b	N.D.	128.11 ± 1.58 a	N.D.	27.77 ± 0.02 c	1338.69
‘Albion’	Stem	3329.11 ± 1.76 a	48.84 ± 0.86 d	N.D.	7.10 ± 0.42 b	6.83 ± 0.09 d	10.48 ± 0.03 b	150.80 ± 0.30 b	3553.16
	Leaf	1715.34 ± 8.02 b	339.65 ± 0.11 c	N.D.	14.72 ± 0.41 a	113.18 ± 1.41 b	35.41 ± 0.18 a	24.81 ± 0.05 d	2243.11

Results are the mean values ± standard deviation from three measurements (n = 3); means in the same column with superscript with different letters (a, b, c, d,) are significantly different at p < 0.05. N.D; not detected (LOQ: lactic acid 0.60 mg/100 g, acetic acid 0.41 mg/100 g, and succinic acid 0.32 mg/100 g).

. Seven organic acids were identified: oxalic acid, malic acid, lactic acid, acetic acid, citric acid, succinic acid, and fumaric acid. Malic acid content in the cortex, pith, and skin was measured at 137.32 ± 19.58, 203.94 ± 12.42, and 362.99 ± 9.71 mg/100 g FW, respectively. These results suggest that malic acid, along with lactic acid, is the predominant organic acid in the edible parts of the ‘Warrior’ cultivar. On the other hand, fumaric acid had the lowest content in all parts, and acetic acid was not detected. The main organic acids identified in the edible parts of ‘Albion’ were oxalic acid and malic acid, with oxalic acid showing the highest content of 887.95 ± 1.21 mg/100 g FW (cortex), 393.27 ± 1.02 mg/100 g FW (pith), and 1669.34 ± 6.34 mg/100 g FW (skin), respectively. Fumaric acid was the lowest, similar to the ‘Warrior’, and lactic acid was not detected. The main organic acid in the inedible parts of ‘Warrior’ cultivar stem and leaf was identified as malic acid, and the contents of malic acid in stem and leaf were 597.48 ± 1.42 and 937.71 ± 6.71 mg/100 g FW, respectively, which were high compared to other organic acids. The main organic acid in the inedible parts of ‘Albion’ was identified as oxalic acid, with 3329.11 ± 1.76 (stem) and 1715.34 ± 8.02 (leaf) mg/100 g FW, respectively. Moreover, the ‘Warrior’ cultivar was found to contain oxalic acid, lactic acid, citric acid, succinic acid, and fumaric acid, while the ‘Albion’ was found to have several organic acids, including malic acid, acetic acid, citric acid, succinic acid, and fumaric acid. Detailed information including the HPLC chromatograms is reported in Supplementary Figure S1.

Organic acids are critical in determining the taste, flavor, and pH of fruits and vegetables, with significant impacts on their overall quality and consumer acceptance. These acids, such as citric, malic, and ascorbic acids, contribute to the sourness, balance sweetness, and influence the preservation of produce. For example, citric acid is known for its sharp sourness, common in citrus fruits, which enhances flavor complexity by balancing sweetness and adding freshness [21,22]. Moreover, organic acids play roles beyond taste, including extending shelf life and offering health benefits. For instance, malic acid not only contributes to flavor but also helps in preserving fruit by inhibiting bacterial growth, while ascorbic acid acts as a potent antioxidant, enhancing the nutritional value and post-harvest life of fruits and vegetables [22]. In particular, malic, citric, and oxalic acids are known to be involved in the processes when plants acquire nutrients and detoxify heavy metals [23]. Organic acid content can vary not only by cultivars or plant parts, but also by growing conditions such as soil and climate. Some organic acids are increased by external environmental stressors [24]. Interestingly, acetic acid was not detected in the ‘Warrior’ cultivar and lactic acid was not detected in the ‘Albion’ cultivar in both the edible parts.

In addition, acetic acid and succinic acid were not detected in the inedible parts of ‘Warrior’ cultivar and lactic acid was not detected in the inedible parts of ‘Albion’ cultivar, which is similar to the study by Yusuf et al. [25] in that organic acid composition may differ between cultivars. The ‘Warrior’ cultivar had the highest total organic acid content in the skin part at 898.28 mg/100 g FW compared to its cortex and pith, and the ‘Albion’ cultivar also had a higher total organic acid content in the skin part at 2180.82 mg/100 g FW. The high organic acid content found in the skin of both ‘Albion’ and ‘Warrior’ cultivars may be caused by external environmental stress factor, as Lopez-Bucio et al. [24] reported. Therefore, the ‘Albion’ cultivar showed a higher organic acid content in both the edible parts and inedible parts compared to the ‘Warrior’ cultivar. This indicates that organic acid content can vary even within the same crop, depending on the cultivar [25].

3.4. Sugar Content

Sugar profiles are crucial in determining the taste, flavor, and pH of fruits and vegetables. The primary sugars—sucrose, glucose, and fructose—each contribute uniquely to the sweetness and overall flavor profile of fruits. For instance, sucrose generally provides a higher degree of sweetness compared to glucose and fructose, which also have distinct flavor characteristics. The balance and ratio of these sugars influence not just sweetness but also the overall flavor complexity of the fruit. This balance is essential for creating a desirable taste, as an optimal sugar/acid ratio contributes to the perceived quality and palatability of the fruit and vegetable processing products [26]. The sugar compositions for the ‘Warrior’ and ‘Albion’ cultivars are detailed in

Table 5. Individual sugar contents of parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) edible parts (cortex, pith, and skin).

Cultivar	Part	Fructose (%)	Glucose (%)	Sucrose (%)	Total Sum (%)
‘Warrior’	Cortex	0.40 ± 0.02 b	0.34 ± 0.01 c	5.90 ± 0.12 a	6.66
	Pith	0.27 ± 0.01 d	0.23 ± 0.01 e	4.68 ± 0.13 b	5.18
	Skin	0.40 ± 0.00 b	0.42 ± 0.01 b	3.11 ± 0.02 c	3.93
‘Albion’	Cortex	0.22 ± 0.01 e	0.20 ± 0.02 f	3.25 ± 0.09 c	3.67
	Pith	0.44 ± 0.02 a	0.66 ± 0.01 a	1.99 ± 0.10 d	3.09
	Skin	0.31 ± 0.01 c	0.29 ± 0.00 d	1.24 ± 0.06 e	1.84

Results are the mean values ± standard deviation from three measurements (n = 3); means in the same column with superscript with different letters (a, b, c, d e and f) are significantly different at p < 0.05.

. Sucrose was the predominant sugar in the edible parts of both cultivars. In the ‘Warrior’ cultivar, sucrose made up 88.59%, 90.35%, and 79.13% of the total sugar content in the cortex, pith, and skin, respectively. Similarly, sucrose was identified as the main sugar in the ‘Albion’ cultivar, accounting for 88.56%, 64.40%, and 67.39% of the total sugar content in the cortex, pith, and skin, respectively. ‘Warrior’ and ‘Albion’ had the highest total sugar content in their cortex, followed by the pith and skin. The ‘Warrior’ cultivar had 6.66% total sugar content in its cortex, while the ‘Albion’ cultivar contained 3.67%. Detailed information including the HPLC chromatograms is reported in Supplementary Figure S2.

In the case of Jovanovic-Malinovska et al.’s [17] study, the fructose, glucose, and sucrose contents of parsnips were measured as 0.73 ± 0.15, 0.78 ± 0.02, and 2.95 ± 1.04 g/100 g FW, respectively. Among the three analyzed sugars, sucrose had the highest quantity. This sugar composition is consistent with our findings, indicating a similar sugar profiling pattern between the two studies. The sugar content of fruits and vegetables can be influenced by the hydrolysis of carbohydrates, which depends on factors such as the storage period and method. At low temperatures, the β-amylase activity in parsnips can cause the hydrolysis of starch into sugars, leading to the production of fructose, glucose, and sucrose [27]. Therefore, our experimental results show that the sugar content of ‘Warrior’ cultivar harvested in winter was higher than that of ‘Albion’ cultivar harvested in summer. While sucrose is the dominant sugar in both cultivars, the presence of glucose and fructose adds complexity to the flavor and texture, influencing consumer preferences. However, as indicated in Table 5, the total sugar content is relatively low (1–6%), and the natural bitterness of parsnips reduces their perceived sweetness, despite being referred to as “sugar carrots”. This balance between mild sweetness and bitterness plays a key role in determining their suitability for specific food products and market applications.

Further research on the bioactive compounds in parsnip could significantly contribute to dietary strategies aimed at reducing the risk of age-related diseases and promoting overall health benefits.

4. Conclusions

The comparative analysis of the ‘Warrior’ and ‘Albion’ parsnip cultivars revealed significant differences in color, firmness, soluble solid content, pH, water content, organic acid composition, and sugar content, largely influenced by their respective harvest periods and environmental conditions. ‘Warrior’ exhibited higher lightness, redness, and yellowness, along with greater firmness and water content, likely due to its winter harvest. In contrast, ‘Albion’, harvested in summer, showed higher SSC and organic acid content, particularly oxalic acid, indicating a more acidic taste profile. Sucrose was the dominant sugar in both cultivars, with ‘Warrior’ showing a higher overall sugar content, suggesting a sweeter flavor. These findings highlight the importance of cultivar selection and harvest timing, which can significantly affect the color, texture, taste, and nutritional value of parsnips. ‘Warrior’s’ higher malic acid content suggests a more balanced flavor, while ‘Albion’s’ elevated oxalic acid may influence bitterness and health implications. Future research should explore the bioactive compounds in these cultivars, focusing on their health benefits and the role of environmental factors in determining crop quality. These findings highlight the importance of cultivar selection and harvest timing, which can significantly affect the color, texture, taste, and nutritional value of parsnips. ‘Warrior’s’ higher malic acid content suggests a more balanced flavor, while ‘Albion’s’ elevated oxalic acid may influence bitterness and health implications. Future research should explore the bioactive compounds present in these cultivars, assess their health benefits, and investigate how environmental factors such as soil type, nutrient availability, and climate conditions impact crop quality. By understanding these variables, we aim to optimize parsnip cultivation and improve their nutritional value and sensory characteristics.