A Short Review on the Wire-Based Directed Energy Deposition of Metals: Mechanical and Microstructural Properties and Quality Enhancement

Ghasempour-Mouziraji, Mehran; Afonso, Daniel; Sousa, Ricardo Alves de

doi:10.3390/app14219921

Open AccessReview

A Short Review on the Wire-Based Directed Energy Deposition of Metals: Mechanical and Microstructural Properties and Quality Enhancement

by

Mehran Ghasempour-Mouziraji

^1,2,*,

Daniel Afonso

^1,2,3 and

Ricardo Alves de Sousa

^1,2

¹

TEMA—Centre for Mechanical Technology and Automation, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal

²

LASI—Intelligent Systems Associate Laboratory, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal

³

School of Design, Management and Production Technologies Northern Aveiro, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Oliveira de Azeméis, Portugal

^*

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(21), 9921; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14219921

Submission received: 25 July 2024 / Revised: 17 September 2024 / Accepted: 18 September 2024 / Published: 30 October 2024

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Precision Manufacturing in Mechanical Engineering: Advanced Structural Design and Applications)

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Abstract

:

Wire-based directed energy deposition (WDED) is an emerging additive manufacturing process garnering significant attention due to its potential for fabricating metal components with tailored mechanical and microstructural properties. This study reviews the WDED process, focusing on fabrication techniques, mechanical behaviors, microstructural characteristics, and quality enhancement methods. Utilizing data from the Web of Science, the study identifies leading countries in WDED research and highlights a growing interest in the field, particularly in materials engineering. Stainless steel, titanium, aluminum, and copper-based alloys are prominent materials for WDED applications. Furthermore, the study explores post-processing techniques such as machining, heat treatment, and surface finishing as integral steps for quality enhancement in WDED components.

Keywords:

wire-based directed energy deposition; additive manufacturing; 3D printing; quality improvement

1. Introduction

Additive manufacturing (AM), also known as 3D printing, is a new type of manufacturing that creates three-dimensional parts layer by layer by converting data from computer-aided design (CAD) data to a final part [1,2]. Despite subtractive manufacturing techniques, which are based on shaping or cutting, AM adds material to build the final part. This technique allows industries to have more flexibility in fabricating complex parts while reducing production time and waste material. In 2010, the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) group “ASTM F42—Additive Manufacturing” [3] classified AM into seven groups, namely material jetting [4], binder jetting [5], material extrusion [6], VAT photopolymerization [7], powder bed fusion [8], sheet lamination [9], and directed energy deposition [10,11]. In these methods, the feeding material is either powder or wire (metal or polymer), depending on the process requirement. Recently, wire-based DED (WDED) has been accentuated by research centers and industries, particularly material engineering units. Figure 1 indicates a flow chart of fabrication via the AM process.

Figure 2a–d depict the number of studies, fields of research, bibliographic map, and contributing countries in the field of WDED, respectively. Figure 2a shows the number of research studies over a period of two decades. This growth has been particularly sharp in recent years, which reflects the rapid advancements of WDED technology across various industries. As can be seen in Figure 2b, DED has been mostly used in the engineering field, given the demand for high-performance, complex components that can be tailored to specific requirements in industries such as aerospace, automotive, and manufacturing. Figure 2c,d show the field map, which highlights the geographical distribution of DED research and usage that provides information on which countries are more prominent in adopting and advancing this technology. In this paper, a review of the DED process, particularly wire-based DED to wire and arc manufacturing, from mechanical and microstructural properties is investigated. Then, the most used post-processing methods are provided.

WDED is categorized based on feeding materials and energy sources, shown in Figure 3. In laser metal deposition (LMD), a laser beam melts the material (powder or wire) to create a melt pool on the metallic substrate, as shown in Figure 3a. Electron beam DED is similar to LMD, but the main difference is the energy source for melting the material, which can be powder or wire, as shown in Figure 3b. Wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), as shown in Figure 3c, is a combination of two manufacturing processes, namely AM and gas metal arc welding (GMAW). In this method, the process is carried out by a welding robot, which has an attached welding torch integrated with a power source. Molten DED, Figure 3e, is a method that mainly focuses thermal energy to melt and deposit material (mostly wire, and in some cases, powder) onto the substrate. Friction DED, Figure 3e, is a solid-state AM process that does not melt material but mostly relies on the frictional heat generated between the deposition tool and substrate.

Table 1 provides information and classifies the DED techniques.

Compared to other additive manufacturing methods like laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) and binder jetting (BJ), wire-based directed energy deposition (WDED) offers unique advantages in terms of material efficiency, build size, and deposition rate. WDED has a much faster deposition rate, making it advantageous for producing large-scale samples such as those being used in aerospace and heavy industries, when speed and scale are critical. Its use of wire feedstock also ensures higher material usage with less waste, in contrast to powder-based methods that often experience material loss during recoating. Moreover, WDED has fewer size restrictions, enabling the production of large parts without the limitations of a fixed-build chamber, as seen in PBF and BJ. Eventually, WDED excels in processing high-performance alloys like titanium and nickel-based superalloys, offering the ability to achieve superior mechanical properties and tailored microstructures, making it ideal for industrial applications.

2. Metals Used in WDED and Types of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties

The microstructures and mechanical properties of the different metallic materials fabricated by WDED additive manufacturing are discussed in this section.

2.1. Iron-Based Alloys (Steels)

The additive manufacturing (AM) methods are used for fabricating many iron-based alloys. The iron-based alloys are widely used in different applications such as pipelines [48], nuclear [49], cladding [50], bridges [51], automotive [52], etc., because of their low price, high wear resistivity, hardness, strength, elongation, corrosion resistivity, impact toughness, and durability. The microstructure properties of the steels are dependent on the phase’s information fabricated by adding different alloying elements to these materials, such as ferrite, martensite, austenite, intermetallic, and carbides. The mechanical properties of the different steels and the process parameters and methods are given in Table 2.

The microstructure of a WDED material is related to the thermal history of the process during production. The metallic materials fabricated by WDED have an inhomogeneous composition and metastable structure, due to the repeated thermal cycling (heating and cooling). Xu et al. [23] reported that the different microstructures of SS 316L are recognized in each wall fabricated by the LMD method, as shown in Figure 4. The top region in the column direction of the fabrication has a complex structure with the non-unifying structure of fine ferrite grains and austenite because of the high heat loss at the top layer due to its high surface area and lack of reheating cycles [23]. Moreover, in the middle region, the uniform austenitic structure is revealed because of the recrystallization that occurs by melting the previous layer and applying the new layer to the previous layer [23]. In addition, the middle region has austenite grains with a network and cellular structure because of their stable solidification during heating. Also, the microstructure of the bottom region changes from the planar structure to the columnar and cellular dendrites because of the maximum temperature gradient [23]. The different microstructures of each layer of SS 316L applied by LMD, influence the microhardness of the produced alloy. The top layer has a lower microhardness as compared to the bottom layer [23].

The solidification mechanism for the austenitic SS 316 and ferrite-austenite SS 304 is shown in Figure 5 [66]. The solidification of the SS 316 from the liquid to the austenite grain with smooth boundaries is shown in Figure 5a–c. The solidification of the SS 304 starts with the nucleation of the austenite and ferrite, and then ferrite grains are transferred to the austenite. At the end of the solidification, it can be observed that almost all the ferritic grains are transferred to the austenite with a small amount of ferrite, as shown in Figure 5d–f.

Vorontsov et al. [55] studied the effect of the ultrasonic vibration on the microstructure and mechanical properties of austenitic stainless steel prepared by the EBDED method. The solidification process of the transformed austenite (γ) to ferrite (δ) in the melting pool during the EBDED method with and without ultrasonic is shown in Figure 6. The ferrites are shown as black particles in the schematic. As can be seen from the schematic, the particle size of ferrite in steel-based alloys fabricated using the ultrasonic EBDED method is reduced. The dendritic size during the solidification is decreased, and the ductility of the alloy fabricated with the EBDED method including ultrasonic is higher than that with the EBDED method without ultrasonic.

2.2. Titanium-Based Alloys

Titanium and its alloys are widely used in different applications, such as aerospace [67], automotive, and biomedical [68], because of their high strength, low weight ratio, and biocompatibility at a high cost [69]. The research on titanium-based alloys has been accentuated for decreasing the cost by changing the traditional manufacturing process to the new processes and designing the new alloy components [70]. The WDED methods are widely used for fabricating large titanium-based alloys with different components and complex structures. The mechanical properties of the different titanium-based alloys and the processing parameters and methods are shown in Table 3.

The microstructure and mechanical properties of the titanium-based alloys fabricated by the WDED are related to the heating during the fabrication process. The metastable microstructures are produced by applying the temperature for fabrication by WDED methods the cooling and heating are repeated for each layer. Pixner et al. [78], investigated the microstructure of the top-to-bottom regions of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy at low magnification. The columnar prior β grains are shown from the top to bottom of the build direction, as shown in Figure 7a–c. This microstructure was achieved because of the different temperatures during the solidification in the direction of the heat flow. In addition, a small amount of the micro and macro-pores is observed in the cross-section. The microstructure in the layer bond and HAZ has low changes due to thermal cycles and intrinsic heat treatment of neighboring weld bead deposition. Moreover, Figure 7d shows that the substrate of the AM after fabricating the sample on that has equiaxed prior β grains.

The microstructure of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy fabricated by the WDED at the high magnification shows the mixture of the thinner α and α’ (martensite) with the prior β grains, but after annealing treatment (710 °C for 2 h) the microstructure is changed to the α + β structure, as shown in Figure 8 [78].

Kalashnikov et al. [79], investigated the microstructure of the top and bottom regions of Ti-6Al-4V alloy and found two different microstructures with and without water quenching fabricated by the EBDED method. The microstructure of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy with water quenching has a lamellar structure containing α’-α-β phases, and the bottom position of the sample has α’ structure [79]. The microstructure of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy without quenching changes in the top from a lamellar structure to a basket-weave structure containing α’ phases and in the bottom, the same structure is absorbed with the α phase [79].

The structure of the TiAlNb alloys printed by the EBDED is changed by the heat treatment as shown in Figure 9 [74]. The printed sample with the EBDED has a mixed structure of the B₂ + O structure after doing the heat treatment at 960 °C, 1040 °C and 1100 °C can be seen that the structure of the TiAlNb alloy in 960 °C is turned to the B₂ + O + α₂ structure with the precipitation of the α₂, after increasing the temperature of the heat treatment to 1040 °C the structure of the alloy is turned to the B₂ + α₂ structure and the O structure is solved at this temperature and has a discontinuous grain boundary. In addition, by increasing the heat treatment temperature to 1040 °C the structure changes to the B₂ structure and the grain grows [74].

Hu et al. [80] checked the effect of the heat treatment on the mechanical properties and microstructure of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy fabricated by the EBDED method. The microstructure of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy annealed at 690 °C and 750 °C has a continuous α grain boundary with the prior β grain boundary and because the α’ martensite at those annealing temperatures has low atomic force for the diffusion driving and a slow rate of redistribution solubility, the β prior grains are contained in the α’ martensite structure. Above 800 °C for the annealing treatment all the α’ martensitic structure is soluble in the α and β structures.

2.3. Aluminum-Based Alloys

The aluminum-based alloys are used in automotive [81,82] and aerospace engineering [83] applications because they are having high corrosion resistivity and low density with a combination of mechanical and physical properties. The fabrication of the aluminum-based alloys with the WDED method needs more attention because of their different applications and very few researchers have worked on fabricating the aluminum-based alloys with the WDED. With the printing of the aluminum-based alloys in a vacuum chamber, composite materials can be achieved by using two wire printing, and the heat removal can be controlled continuously. The mechanical properties of the different aluminum-based alloys and the processing parameters and methods are shown in Table 4.

WDED is useful for fabricating large equipment with aluminum-based alloy with a complex shape and thin wall instead of fabricating small equipment with a simple shape because the cost of fabricating small equipment with machining is lower than the that of WDED methods. Moreover, the aluminum-based alloy fabricated by the WDED methods has lower mechanical properties as compared to the material fabricated with the machining method. Utyaganova et al. [87] investigated the microstructure of the top, middle, and bottom regions of AA5356 alloy fabricated by the EBDED method. The top region of the microstructure contains shrinkage with porosity; in addition, the shrinkage and porosities disappear at the middle stage of the sample, and the bottom region shows small porosities without shrinkage as compared to the top region [87].

Chen et al. [85] fabricated AA4043 alloy with FDED, and the microstructure of the different regions is shown in Figure 10. The microstructure is uniform with the equiaxed and fined grains because of the recrystallization dynamic generated by the high strain rate and plastic deformation of the FDED process [85,89]. As can be seen from the EBSD, the particle size of each part of the sample fabricated by the FDED decreases from the bottom to the top region of the prepared sample. This is attributed to the friction heat in the FDED method. The ultimate tensile strength of the AA4043 alloy at the top layer is increased as compared to the other layers because the average grain size of the top layer is higher than that of the middle and bottom. In addition, with decreasing average grain size, the elongation of the material increases, so the bottom region has a higher elongation as compared with the other regions.

2.4. Copper-Based Alloys

Due to its great thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, formability, machinability, and ductility, copper (Cu) is one of the most utilized materials in various industries such as electronics, defense, aerospace, automotive, etc. Unique mechanical properties of Cu and its alloys, such as high thermal conductivity, have encouraged industries to use it in power units, electronic connectors, and heat exchange. Recently, the need for complex geometries has increased, which obliges industries to use additive manufacturing, particularly DED. The most challenging issues to work with Cu alloys are oxide production, which creates agglomeration, and reduced fluidity of molten Cu, which decreases the wettability. So, even in the best circumstances, welding pure copper is still challenging. Therefore, utilizing standard manufacturing methods like welding and similar approaches presents a variety of challenges. The mechanical properties of the different copper-based alloys and the processing parameters and methods are given in Table 5.

Zykova et al. [90] fabricated aluminum bronze/Udimet 500 composites by the EBDED method, The microstructures of composites with different volume percentages of Udimet 500 are shown in Figure 11. The composites with 5Ud have dark β-Cu₃Al in intra-grain particles and grain boundaries with coarse α-Cu matrix grains. Moreover, with the Udimet 500 increased to 10 vol. %, the content of the β-Cu₃Al is reduced. In addition, as Udimet 500 in the aluminum bronze matrix increases, the grain size of the composites decreases significantly.

2.5. Mg and Ni Alloys

Magnesium (Mg) and its alloys are widely used in different applications because they have significant properties such as high balance performance, excellent specific strength and low density [96,97,98]. Studies on the WDED method for Mg alloys are still examining the effect of heating and other parameters on the mechanical properties, microstructure and defects [99]. Since working on Mg alloys has not been fully investigated, there are not many studies related to this field, but a number of studies are detailed in Table 6.

The microstructure and mechanical properties of magnesium-based alloys fabricated by ultrasound-assisted wire-arc DED are related to the ultrasonic power in the process. Stable microstructures are produced by increasing the ultrasonic power for fabrication by the ultrasound-assisted wire-arc DED method, and the grain size is reduced by increasing the ultrasonic power. Li et al. [99] investigated the microstructure from the bottom to top of AZ 31 alloy. Both conditions in this research show the fully equiaxed grains. As can be seen from Figure 12, the grain size of the microstructure fabricated by the higher ultrasonic power is finer than that achieved with the lower power. The process parameter and mechanical properties of the nickel-based alloys and methods are given in Table 7.

Figure 13 shows the effect of the ultrasonic power on the fabrication of the porosity in the sample fabricated by the ultrasound-assisted wire-arc DED method [99]. This schematic clearly shows that with increasing ultrasonic power in the process, the percentage of the porosities is reduced.

The nickel-based alloys are used in different applications, such as nuclear reactors, aircraft engines, and turbine blades, because of their high mechanical properties at high temperatures and high thermal stability [100,101,102]. The surfaces of these alloys have serious damage and significant loss of weight from the surface because of corrosion, chemical reactions during the process, wear, thermal fatigue, and erosion. Therefore, the cost of repairing damaged equipment can be significantly reduced in terms of energy and materials by replacing it with new equipment [8]. Recently, the DED methods have been used for the repair of damaged parts [103].

Table 7. Mechanical properties of Ni alloys fabricated by WDED processes.

Technique	Material	Process Parameters	Microstructure	Condition	YS (MPa)	UTS (MPa)	El (%)	Hardness (GPa)	Reported by
EBDED	Inconel 738		δ-phase	-	665	984	21	-	[103]
EBDED	Inconel 738		δ-phase + γ″/γ′	Direct aging heat treatment: 720 °C × 8 h/furnace cooling to 620 °C × 8 h/air cooling	973	1223	7.7	-	[103]

The microstructure and mechanical properties obtained with the DED method for nickel-based alloys are related to three zones [103], as shown in Figure 14:

Deposition (D)
Diffusion line (FL)
Substrate (S)

Figure 14. The microstructure and inverse pole figure (IPF) map of the different zones. (a) SEM image, (b) Inverse pole figure map at the fusion zone [103].

The D zone fabricated by laser power-based DED has lower deformation suitability than that of the S zone and has a non-uniform structure. In addition, the structure of the nickel-based alloys fabricated by the wire arc DED method in the D zone is long striped (Laves phases) because of the micro-segregation of the Nb element. The mechanical properties of the nickel-based alloys are related to the interaction between the localized slip bands and brittle Laves phase.

3. Quality Improvement

In many cases, post-processing is necessary to modify surface quality, hardness, residual stress, and distortion in parts manufactured with WDED. Selecting the right post-processing method would therefore be very helpful in minimizing or eliminating these problems. In this section, some post-processing techniques are given and elaborated on. Based on Wholer’s report, about 27% of metal processing costs are assigned to post-processing [104].

3.1. Machining

Machining is one of the most widely used post-processing techniques to enhance surface quality, particularly for internal structures with slurry-based honing [105]. Although regular machining processes such as turning, drilling, and milling can be used, some advanced machining processes such as electro-discharge machining (EDM) or electrochemical drill-grinding (ECDG0 would be useful as alternatives to previous machining processes [16]. It is worth noting that the machining process may be in wet or dry conditions. To use the machining process, some steps must be taken, which are shown in Figure 15.

3.2. Heat Treatment

In general, heat treatment is the application of a controlled thermal cycle (heating and cooling) to modify metal properties [106]. To enhance the mechanical and microstructural properties, heat treatment is used to reduce residual stress and achieve the desired mechanical and microstructural properties [74]. To select heat treatment, some parameters such as alloying systems [81], primary microstructure, and heat treatment processing parameters such as temperature, cooling time, and soaking time must be considered. Localized heat treatment, such as laser treatment, is mostly used in the molding industry to increase the mechanical properties of mold surfaces. Also, since the part is attached to the base plate, heat treatment can be used to reduce the residual stress, but some parameters must be considered, such as the protocol to be used, secondary phase, and grain size [107]. There are different standards, such as ASTM F 3001-14 [108] and ASTM F2924-14 [109], to guide Ti heat treatment for powder-based AM, but there is a standard, AMS 4999A [110], which gives information about Ti samples fabricated via DED.

3.3. Surface Finishing

Due to layer-by-layer deposition, AM parts have low surface quality and need further post-processing. There are some reasons that contribute to the surface finish, namely powder/wire adhesion, stair-steps, and scanning strategy [104]. To address powder/wire adhesion, processing parameters such as scanning strategy and deposition orientation must be controlled. Since the fundamental of AM is layer-by-layer manufacturing, stair-step is an inseparable phenomenon that can be addressed by choosing a thinner layer. So, based on the achieved surface and desired quality, the post-processing is selected. Some methods, such as bead blasting, polishing, sanding, and abrasive flow machining, are the most widely used in AM processes.

To compare post-processing for WDED with the other AM methods such as LPBF or powder-based DED, WDED needs more post-processing such as machining due to its lower surface quality by fabricating layer by layer via wire. The wire feeding approach may result in a coarser layer and larger stair-stepping effects, which make post-processing methods like abrasive flow machining (AFM) crucial to achieving acceptable surface quality. Contrary to WDED, powder-based AM offers better surface quality by using finer powder and setting-optimized processing parameters, but powder removal and residual stress relief are still vital. To post-process WDED samples, particularly those that are sensitive to thermal stress, EDM would be highly beneficial to fabricate the complex geometries, making it competitive for high-precision samples. Regarding heat treatment, WDED samples are intended to have higher residual stresses due to the larger, solid-state (using a wire) deposition structure, leading to deflection and distortion if not properly relieved. Heat treatment for WDED mostly accentuates stress relieving and microstructural refinement, with some methods, such as laser-based localized treatments, used to enhance specific regions. However, for powder-based methods, heat treatment is mostly utilized for homogenizing microstructures and increasing mechanical properties. Standards, namely ASTM F3001-14, guide Ti heat treatment in powder-based methods, whereas AMS 4999A uses DED-specific protocols, showing the various post-processing requirements between WDED and other AM methods.

This paper provides information on different key post-processing methods such as machining, heat treatment, and surface finishing and their specific roles in improving the performance of WDED samples. Machining is essential for enhancing surface quality and achieving dimensional precision, which is a vital element for the fabrication of critical samples. For the aerospace industry, as with turbine blades or automotive components such as engine blocks, advanced machining techniques such as EDM or electrochemical discharge grinding (ECDG) are used. These techniques aid the removal of excess material by maintaining tight tolerances. By enhancing surface quality and removing defects from the additive process, machining significantly increases the structural integrity and performance of WDED parts. Heat treatment is crucial for changing the microstructure and to relieve residual stresses in WDED components, particularly for high-performance alloys such as titanium or stainless steel. In aerospace and biomedical industries, where fatigue resistance and strength are critical, heat treatments like annealing or quenching are used to enhance mechanical properties. For example, in biomedical implants, heat treatment can enhance the strength of titanium alloys. Surface finishing methods, such as polishing, bead blasting, or abrasive flow machining, play a key role in decreasing surface roughness, which is particularly important in applications like implants or precision automotive parts. A smoother surface not only enhances the aesthetic appearance but also improves the wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and overall functionality of the WDED part.

Since in WDED, a wire feedstock is used, coarser layers are created and require more intensive post-processing in comparison to powder-based DED methods. For example, WDED parts typically exhibit more pronounced surface roughness and larger stair-stepping effects, requiring advanced machining techniques such as electro-discharge machining (EDM) or abrasive flow machining (AFM) to obtain the desired surface finish and geometrical accuracy. In contrast, powder-based DED processes produce finer layers, decreasing the need for intensive post-processing.

Moreover, heat treatment in WDED varies because of the larger deposition rate and potential for higher residual stress compared to powder-based DED. Specific heat treatment approaches, such as annealing or laser-based localized heat treatment, are mostly used in WDED, particularly for materials like titanium and nickel-based alloys.

4. Practical Implications

Based on the growing advancements and interest in WDED, several practical implications can be mentioned for industry-involved applications. First and foremost, industries such as those in the aerospace, automotive and biomedical sectors can use this method to fabricate parts with stainless steel, titanium, aluminum, and copper-based alloys to optimize their WDED processes. By carefully choosing materials and setting processing parameters, companies can achieve desired mechanical and microstructural properties, enhancing the performance and reliability of their components. Next, since AM-fabricated parts mostly require post-processing, this study underscores the importance of post-processing techniques such as machining, heat treatment and surface finishing to enhance the quality of WDED samples. Companies must integrate these methods into their production workflow to meet industrial standards for mechanical and microstructural properties. Afterwards, to invest in R&D and collaboration, companies can find collaborators from countries that are accentuating their resources for WDED. This approach ameliorates technological development and aids industries in staying at the forefront of cutting-edge technology. Finally, as WDED is growing, companies can develop new alloys and composites. This could widen their horizons for an innovative approach, allowing for the creation of components with better mechanical properties that could not be achieved via traditional manufacturing methods.

WDED offers practical applications in various industries, such as those in the aerospace, automotive, and biomedical fields. In the aerospace industry, WDED is a useful method for manufacturing complex, high-performance parts such as structural components and turbine blades from titanium and Inconel alloys. These are widely known for their strength-to-weight ratio, which is a vital characteristic in aerospace industries. Also, WDED’s ability to fabricate near-net shapes reduces material waste. Likewise, in the automotive field, WDED can be utilized to fabricate lightweight, high-strength components such as aluminum cylinder heads and heat exchangers. These parts can take advantage of WDED’s multi-material capabilities, which enable the deposition of wear-resistant coatings that automotive standards for performance and durability require. In the biomedical sector, WDED aids in fabricating custom implants and prosthetics using biocompatible materials. The ability to fine-tune the mechanical and microstructural properties through careful selection of processing parameters and post-processing techniques ensures that implants meet the functional requirements. Moreover, industries can use WDED to gain the flexibility to develop new alloys and composites that offer enhanced mechanical properties that cannot be obtained via traditional manufacturing methods.

5. Conclusions

The current study presents a review of wire-based DED, focusing on mechanical and microstructural properties and quality improvements. Based on the achieved results, the number of publications has been increasing day by day, which highlights the growing demand in the field of WDED. It can be observed that Russia is the market leader in WDED, followed by China and Germany, and most of the publications focus on materials engineering. Furthermore, stainless steel, titanium, aluminum, and copper-based alloys are the most used materials for WDED industries. Since the most important part of WDED is finding a feasible range to better control the mechanical and microstructural properties, the most-used processing parameters have been listed with the related types of microstructure and mechanical properties. Moreover, heat treatment, machining, and surface finishing are the most used post-processing methods for WDED samples.

Funding

The authors greatly acknowledge the work which was supported by the projects UIDB/00481/2020 and UIDP/00481/2020—Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia; and CENTRO-01-0145-FEDER-022083—Centro Portugal Regional Operational Programme (Centro2020), under the PORTUGAL 2020 Partnership Agreement, through the European Regional Development Fund. Also, Thanks to FCT for Ph.D. scholarships No. UI/BD/151258/2021.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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AMS 4999A; Titanium Alloy Direct Deposited Products 6Al—4V Annealed. SAE Publications: Warrendale, PA, USA, 2016.

Figure 1. Flow chart of AM process.

Figure 2. Number of publications in the field of WDED, based on Scopus database and Web of Science. (a) Number of publications per year. (b) Research fields in WDED. (c) Bibliographic (filled) map in WDED. (d) Contributing countries.

Figure 3. Classification of WDED. (a) Laser metal deposition [12], (b) electron beam DED [13], (c) wire and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) [14], (d) molten DED, (e) friction DED [15].

Figure 4. Microstructure of the different parts of the SS 316L fabricated by LMD: (a) top layer, (b–d) middle layer and (e) bottom layer [23].

Figure 5. The solidification process for (a–c) SS 316 and (d–f) SS 304 [66].

Figure 6. Schematic of the solidification of iron-based alloy fabricated by the EBDED method with and without ultrasound [55].

Figure 7. Macro and Microstructure of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy fabricated by WDED, (a) macrostructure, microstructure (b) top, (c) middle and (d) bottom [78].

Figure 8. Microstructure of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy fabricated by WDED (a) as-deposited and (b) annealing treatment [78].

Figure 9. The effect of the heat treatment on the microstructure of the TiAlNb alloy [74].

Figure 10. EBSD image of AA4043 alloy fabricated by the FDED method: (a) position of the samples, (b,e) top region, (c,f) middle region, (d,g) bottom region [85].

Figure 11. The microstructure of CuAl₉Mn₂/Udimet 500 composites: (a–c) 5 vol. % of Ud 500 and (d–f) 15 vol. % of Ud 500 [90].

Figure 12. The microstructure of the AZ 31 Mg alloy, from bottom to top, fabricated by ultrasound-assisted wire-arc DED method: (a) ultrasonic power 60 W and (b) ultrasonic power 90 W [99].

Figure 13. Schematic of the effect of ultrasonic power on the porosity. (a) As built, (b) UA60, and UA90 (c) samples during the process [99].

Figure 15. Necessary steps for sample preparation for machining.

Table 1. Different methods of DED.

Technique	Energy Source	Advantages	Disadvantages	Industrial Usage
(Laser Metal Deposition) LMD	high-power laser beam	High deposition rate [16] Control and precision [17] Wide range of material usage Low waste and high efficiency [18] Strong metallurgical bonding [17] Design flexibility [17]	Residual stress Complexity of process parameters control High equipment costs Low surface finish and post processing requirement [18,19] Safety considerations	Repair and re-manufacturing [20,21] Surface treatment and coating [22] Prototyping and rapid tooling Aerospace and aviation [23] Medical devices Tool and mold manufacturing
(Electron beam directed energy Deposition) EBDED	Electron beam	High energy density [24] Excellent material penetration Accurate control of heat input Smaller heat affected zone Large scale manufacturing High material efficiency Capability of using different materials [25]	Preheating requirements [25] Limited build volume [26] High equipment cost [27] Safety consideration [25]	Aerospace [28,29] Oil and gas Power generation Defense and military medical devices Automobile industries Repair and re-manufacturing [30,31,32]
(Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing) WAAM	Electric arc	High deposition rate [33] Cost-effective Material compatibility and variety [34] Large-scale printing [35] Reduced tooling requirements [25] High speed of printing [25]	Low surface quality [36] Limited resolution Overhang and support structures Distortion and residual stresses Post-processing requirements [37] High-cost learning	Maritime and shipbuilding [38] Aerospace [39] Railways Heavy machinery and construction [40] Oil and gas [39] Power generation Defense and military [41] Repair and re-manufacturing [42]
Molten (Directed Energy Deposition) DED	Laser or an electron beam	Different types of material Large-scale printing Freedom of design Enhanced material properties Multi-material printing Efficiency in material usage	Post-processing requirements Residual stresses and distortion Post-processing requirements Safety considerations	Mining and construction Aerospace Oil and gas Power generation Defense and military Medical devices Automobile industries
Friction (Directed Energy Deposition) DED	Friction energy	Material consolidation [43,44] Material efficiency [45] Multi-material capability	Low process speed Energy consumption Thermal distortion [46] Limited resolution Low surface quality Complexity of tool design	Surface enhancement and coating Aerospace and aviation [47] Defense and military

Table 2. Mechanical properties of the iron-based alloys fabricated by WDED processes.

Process	Material	Process Parameters	Microstructure	Condition	YS (MPa)	UTS (MPa)	El (%)	Hardness (GPa)	Reported by
EBDED	SS 321	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 55 mA, Scanning frequency: 1 kHz, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 25.5 mm/s	γ-austenite	-	-	-	-	2–2.4	[53]
EBDED	SS 321 + NiCr	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 55 mA, Scanning frequency: 1 kHz, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 25.5 mm/s	γ-austenite + δ ferrite	-	-	-	-	2.3	[53]
LMD	SS 316 L	Laser power: 2000 W, Scanning speed: 0.42 m/min, Wire feed rate: 2.8 m/min, Spot size: 3 mm	γ-austenite	-	288.3 (90°) 458.5 (0°)	567.3 (90°) 669.3 (0°)	11.4 (90°) 14 (0°)	1.84 to 2.22	[23]
EBDED	High nitrogen steel (HNS)	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 16.5 mA, Scanning frequency: 1 kHz, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 3.3 mm/s	γ-austenite + δ ferrite	Solid solution treatment (annealing: 1 h, 1150 °C)	470	1100	45	-	[54]
EBDED	SS 304 L	Beam current: 50 to 48 mA, scanning frequency: 500 kHz, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 5 mm/s	γ-austenite + low friction of δ ferrite	With and without ultrasonic impact, ultrasonic frequency: 20.7 kHz and max output power: 1000 W	Without ultrasonic: 443.7–456 (90°) Top: 472–477 (0°) Middle: 462.2–481.8 (0°) Bottom: 489.5–480 (0°) With ultrasonic: 511.7–499.4 (90°) Top: 511.8–531.7 (0°) Middle: 511.9–539.1 (0°) Bottom: 535.5–495.2 (0°)	Without ultrasonic: 211.9–221.9 (90°) Top: 217–218.9 (0°) Middle: 207 (0°) Bottom: 212–216.1 (0°) With ultrasonic: 235.9–226 (90°) Top: 241–234.1 (0°) Middle: 239.1–226 (0°) Bottom: 237–224 (0°)	Without ultrasonic: 75–66 (90°) Top: 58–57 (0°) Middle: 68–61 (0°) Bottom: 56–45 (0°) With ultrasonic: 62–60 (90°) Top: 52–49 (0°) Middle: 57–49 (0°) Bottom: 51–45 (0°)	Without ultrasonic: 1.6 With ultrasonic: 1.59	[55]
EBDED	Austenitic SS	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 16.5 mA, Scanning frequency: 1 kHz, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 3.3 mm/s, beam speed: 0.65 mm/s	γ-austenite + δ ferrite	Quench from 1100 °C into cold water	250 to 310	-	48 to 65	-	[56]
EBDED	SS 321	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 15 mA, Scanning frequency: 1 kHz, Beam acceleration voltage: 40 kV, Wire feeding rate: 10 mm/s, Deposition velocity: 0.1, 0.23, 0.18 m/s	-	-	250 to 315 (90°) 240 to 317 (0°)	-	-	-	[57]
LMD	SS 316 L	Laser power: 2750 W, Scanning speed: 1067 mm/min, Wire feed rate: 4445 mm/min	-	-	326 to 349 (90°) 352 to 403 (0°)	495 to 580 (90°) 594 to 622 (0°)	16 to 36 (90°) 38 to 50 (0°)	1.92 to 2	[58]
LMD	SS 316 L	Laser power: 50 W, Scanning speed: 300 mm/min, Wire feed rate: 600 mm/min	-	-	-	514.1 (90°) 612.2 (0°)	98.2 (90°) 98.1 (0°)	1.71	[19]
EBDED	Low carbon steel	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 44–50 mA, Scanning frequency: 1 kHz, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 5.8 mm/s	Ferrite + Pearlite	Normalize for 30 min at 980 °C, air cool	295	454	33	-	[59]
EBDED	SS 321 + Cu	Beam current: 50–55 mA, Scanning frequency: 1 kHz, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 V, Wire feeding rate: 300 mm/s	-	-	194	314	16	SS: 1.85 Cu: 0.91	[60]
EBDED	SS 321	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 45 mA, Scanning frequency: 1 kHz, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 3.6 mm/s	γ-austenite + δ ferrite	-	186–205 (90°) Top: 213–238 (0°) Middle: 196–206 (0°) Bottom: 203–241 (0°)	520–560 (90°) Top: 550–577 (0°) Middle: 580–546 (0°) Bottom: 559–580 (0°)	56–66 (90°) Top: 42–51 (0°) Middle: 47–55 (0°) Bottom: 43–45(0°)	2.4	[61]
EBDED	SS 304	Beam current: 30–33 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30–25 kV, Deposition speed: 200–220 mm/min, Wire feeding rate: 800–865–965 mm/min	γ-austenite + δ ferrite	-	30, 30, 200, 965: 221 33, 25, 200, 800: 280 33, 25, 200, 800: 257 33, 25, 220, 865: 238	30, 30, 200, 965: 534 33, 25, 200, 800: 557 33, 25, 200, 800: 492 33, 25, 220, 865: 534	30, 30, 200, 965: 94.7 33, 25, 200, 800: 88.1 33, 25, 200, 800: 86.5 33, 25, 220, 865: 88	-	[62]
EBDED	SS 304	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 16.5 mA, Scanning frequency: 1 kHz, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 3.3 mm/s, Beam rate: 0.65 mm/s	γ-austenite + δ ferrite	-	245–264 (90°) Top: 260–252 (0°) Middle: 250–277 (0°) Bottom: 298–305 (0°)	820–855 (90°) Top: 810–820 (0°) Middle: 875–880 (0°) Bottom: 885–890 (0°)	43–47 (90°) Top: 36 (0°) Middle: 42–45 (0°) Bottom: 38–39 (0°)	-	[63]
EBDED	SS 304	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 16.5 mA, Scanning frequency: 1 kHz, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 3.3 mm/s, Beam rate: 0.65 mm/s	γ-austenite + δ ferrite	Solid solution treatment (1050 °C, 1 h, water quench)	239–261 (90°) Top: 246–255 (0°) Middle: 242–270 (0°) Bottom: 292–296(0°)	703–866 (90°) Top: 767–837(0°) Middle: 884–888 (0°) Bottom: 816–962 (0°)	44–71 (90°) Top: 52–59 (0°) Middle: 56–60 (0°) Bottom: 49–70 (0°)	-	[63]
EBDED	SS 304	Vacuum chamber, beam current: 50–35 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 220 mm/min	γ-austenite	-	-	-	-	2.02	[64]
LMD	SS 304	Laser power: 43.5–48–49.9–51.4 W, Scanning speed: 1.5–2.5–3–3.5–5 mm/s, Wire feed rate: 7.85 mm/s, Spot size: 0.2 mm	γ-austenite + δ ferrite	-	-	750	-	2.25 to 2.35	[18]
LMD	SS 316 L	Laser power: 300 W, Scanning speed: 1360 mm/min, Wire feed rate: 14 mm/s	γ-austenite + δ ferrite	-	Top: 465 (90°) 434 (0°) Bottom: 438 (90°) 428 (0°)	Top: 693 (90°) 642 (0°) Bottom: 660 (90°) 629 (0°)	Top: 78 (90°) 67 (0°) Bottom: 72 (90°) 74 (0°)	Top: 1.72 Middle: 1.76 Bottom: 1.87	[17]
EBDED	SS 321	Vacuum chamber, beam current: 43 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 3.6 mm/s	γ-austenite	-	212.5	531.6	59	-	[65]
EBDED	SS 321	Vacuum chamber, beam current: 43 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 3.6 mm/s	γ-austenite	Solid solution treatment: 1100 °C for 1 h	196.8	531.6	72	-	[65]
EBDED	SS 321 + NiCr	Vacuum chamber, beam current: 43 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 3.6 mm/s	γ-austenite	-	148.5	377.1	54	-	[65]

Table 3. Mechanical properties of the titanium-based alloys fabricated by WDED processes.

Technique	Material	Process Parameters	Microstructure	Condition	YS (MPa)	UTS (MPa)	El (%)	Hardness (GPa)	Reported by
EBDED	Ti-5Al-2Sn-2Zr-4Mo-4Cr	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 40–60 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 60 kV, Wire feeding rate: 1800–2400 mm/min	α + β	Subtransus solution treatment (750–800–850 °C, 2 h, water quench) + aging (630 °C, 4 h, air cooling)	750 °C: 820 800 °C: 890 850 °C: 989	750 °C: 897 800 °C: 989 850 °C: 1075	750 °C: 12.6 800 °C: 10 850 °C: 5.4	-	[71]
EBDED	Ti-5Al-2Sn-2Zr-4Mo-4Cr	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 40–60 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 60 kV, Wire feeding rate: 1800–2400 mm/min	α + β	Subtransus solution treatment (850 °C, 2 h, water quench) + aging (550–630–710 °C, 4 h, air cooling)	550 °C: 975 630 °C: 887 710 °C: 783.5	550 °C: 1133 630 °C: 985 710 °C: 846	550 °C: 4.5 630 °C: 10 710 °C: 18	-	[71]
EBDED	Ti-Al-Nb	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 40 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 60 kV, Wire feeding rate: TiNb 1.18 and Al 0.51 m/min	-	Double side feeding, single side feeding, parallel feeding	-	DSF: 302.5 to 646.4 SSF: 509 to 663 PF: 661 to 764	DSF: 1.5 to 10.5 SSF: 2.4 to 11.1 PF: 8.2 to 8.7	-	[72]
LMD	Ti-6Al-4V	Vacuum chamber, electron beam power: 6 kW, Wire feeding rate: 18 mm/s, Scanning speed: 16 mm/s	α + β	Annealed 870 °C for 2 h furnace cooling to 496 °C for removing residual stress	858 (90°) 818 (0°)	982 (90°) 913 (0°)	18.5 (90°) 8.8 (0°)	Bonding zone: 3.06 Equiaxed β grain: 3.24	[73]
EBDED	Ti₂AlNb	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 60 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 60 kV, Wire feeding rate: TiNb 1.18 and Al 0.7 m/min	B2/β + O	-	-	965	1.14	-	[74]
EBDED	Ti₂AlNb	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 60 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 60 kV, Wire feeding rate: TiNb 1.18 and Al 0.7 m/min	B2/β + α₂ + O	Solution treatment (960, 1040, 1100 °C for 2 h) + aging (780 °C for 12 h)	-	893 to 965	1.41 to 1.91	-	[74]
EBDED	Ti₂AlNb	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 60 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 60 kV, Wire feeding rate: TiNb 1.18 and Al 0.7 m/min	B2/β + α₂ + O	Solution treatment (960, °C for 2 h) + aging (740, 780, 840 °C for 12 h)	-	995 to 821	1.65 to 2.12	-	[74]
EBDED	Ti-6Al-4V	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 35 and 50 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Printing speed: 392 mm/min	α + β	-	-	662 (90°) 704 (0°)	-	-	[75]
EBDED	Grade 2 Ti	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 35 and 50 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Printing speed: 392 mm/min	α	-	-	709 (90°) 782 (0°)	-	2.8 to 3.3	[75]
EBDED	Ti-4Al-3Mo-1V	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 35 and 50 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Printing speed: 392 mm/min	α + β	-	-	740 (90°) 760 (0°	-	3 to 3.3	[75]
EBDED	Ti-6Al-4V	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 17.5–47.5 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 90 kV, Printing speed: 2.7–3.9 m/min	α + β	Annealing: 710 °C for 2 h cooled in furnace	Without annealing: 848 With annealing: 823.4	Without annealing: 956.2 With annealing: 883	Without annealing: 4.5 With annealing: 9.5	-	[76]
EBDED	Ti-4Al-3V	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 40–55 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Printing speed: 2.7–955 mm/min	α + β		520 (0°) 530 (90°)	633 (0°) 610 (90°)	8.5 (0°) 10.2 (90°)	-	[77]
EBDED	Ti-6Al-4V	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 160 A, Beam pulse frequency: 3 Hz, Wire feeding rate: 100 cm/min, Wire feed angle: 60°	α + β	-	850	728	14	-	[29]

Table 4. Mechanical properties of the aluminum-based alloys fabricated by WDED processes.

Technique	Material	Process Parameters	Microstructure	Condition	YS (MPa)	UTS (MPa)	El (%)	Hardness (GPa)	Reported by
EBDED	AA7075/AA5356	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 26 to 16 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 440 m/min	-	-	105	289	21	1.1	[84]
FDED	AA4043	Rotational velocity: 2000 rpm, Traverse velocity: 1000 mm/min, Wire feeding speed: 6000 mm/min	-	-	-	234 (90°) Top: 238 (0°) Middle: 269 (0°) Bottom: 295(0°)	30 (90°) Top: 36 (0°) Middle: 33.7 (0°) Bottom: 30.3 (0°)	0.61	[85]
EBDED	AA4047/AA7075	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 26 to 20 µA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 1344 mm/min	-	-	122.7	180.5	7.9	1.32	[86]
EBDED	AA5356	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: varied exponentially A, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 1560 mm/min	-	-	1: 102 (0°) 101 (90°) 2: 106 (0°) 121 (90°) 3: 106 (0°) 110 (90°)	1: 200 (0°) 226 (90°) 2: 242 (0°) 253 (90°) 3: 210 (0°) 235 (90°)	1: 14 (0°) 13 (90°) 2: 24 (0°) 33 (90°) 3: 18 (0°) 22.5 (90°)	-	[87]
EBDED	AA5056/AlSi12	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 25 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 375 mm/min	-	-	142	207	10	0.62	[88]

Table 5. Mechanical properties of copper-based alloys fabricated by WDED processes.

Technique	Material	Process Parameters	Microstructure	Condition	YS (MPa)	UTS (MPa)	El (%)	Hardness (GPa)	Reported by
EBDED	Aluminum Bronze/Udimet 500	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 44–72 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Wire feeding rate: 400 m/min	α-Cu + β-Cu₃Al	-	-	564.5 to 674 (90°) 594.5 to 699.4 (0°)	9 to 42.5 (90°) 9 to 39.7 (0°)	1.7 to 2.6	[90]
EBDED	Aluminum Bronze	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 13.5 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 120 kV, Wire feeding rate: 5.25 m/min	-	-	344	694	19.8	1.5 to 1.7	[91]
EBDED	Aluminum bronze/SS321	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 45 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Layer deposition rate: 400 mm/min	-	-	-	625	57	1.4 to 2	[92]
EBDED	CuAl/B₄C	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 30 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Layer deposition rate: 1500 mm/min	-	-	-	-	-	50 vol. % of B₄C: 4.63 25 vol. % of B₄C: 2.35	[93]
EBDED	CuAl₉Mn₂/VT-20	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 65–42 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 30 kV, Layer deposition rate: 400 mm/min	α-Cu + β’-(Cu₃Al) + γ₁-(Al₄Cu₉) + TiCu₂Al	-	-	5 vol. % Ti: Top: 407 (0°) 500 (90°) Bottom: 500 (0°) 334 (90°) 10 vol. % Ti: Top: 487 (0°) 435 (90°) Bottom: 410 (0°) 396 (90°) 15 vol. % Ti: Top: 321 (0°) 321 (90°) Bottom: 321 (0°) 287 (90°)	5 vol. % Ti: Top: 3 (0°) 5 (90°) Bottom: 6 (0°) 2 (90°) 10 vol. % Ti: 1 15 vol. % Ti: 1	5 vol. % Ti: 1.7 10 vol. % Ti: 2.3 15 vol. % Ti: 2.7	[94]
EBDED	CuAl₉Mn₂/Inconel 625	Vacuum chamber, Beam current: 77.5–45 mA, Beam acceleration voltage: 20 kV, Layer deposition rate: 400 mm/min	α-Cu + β-Cu₃Al	-	-	5 vol. % Ni: 519 (0°) 525 (90°) 15 vol. % Ni: 584 (0°) 560 (90°) 25 vol. % Ni: 824 (0°) 794 (90°) 50 vol. % Ni: 530 (0°) 796 (90°)	5 vol. % Ni: 35 (0°) 36 (90°) 15 vol. % Ni: 20 (0°) 22 (90°) 25 vol. % Ni: 13 (0°) 11 (90°) 50 vol. % Ni: 6.4 (0°) 8 (90°)	5 vol. % Ni: 0.134–0.166 15 vol. % Ni: 0.230 25 vol. % Ni: 0.319 50 vol. % Ni: 0.414	[95]

Table 6. Mechanical properties of Mg alloys fabricated by WDED processes.

Technique	Material	Process Parameters	Microstructure	Condition	YS (MPa)	UTS (MPa)	El (%)	Hardness (GPa)	Reported by
Ultrasound-assisted wire-arc DED	AZ31	Wire diameter: 1.2 mm, Ultrasonic frequency: 15 kHz, AC voltage, Ultrasonic power: 60 W, Wire feed speed: 5.5 m/min, travel speed: 0.4 m/min, Current: 85 A, Voltage: 12.6 V, gas flow rate: 20 L/min	Fully equiaxed grains.	-	Build direction: 76 MPa Travel direction: 73 MPa	Build direction: 205 MPa Travel direction: 211 MPa	Build direction: 11.6% Travel direction: 14.4% MPa	-	[99]
Ultrasound-assisted wire-arc DED	AZ31	Wire diameter: 1.2 mm, Ultrasonic frequency: 15 kHz, AC voltage, Ultrasonic power: 90 W, Wire feed speed: 5.5 m/min, Travel speed: 0.4 m/min, Current: 85 A, Voltage: 12.6 V, Gas flow rate: 20 L/min	Fully equiaxed grains.	-	Build direction: 91 MPa Travel direction: 89 MPa	Build direction: 236 MPa Travel direction: 232 MPa	Build direction: 19.1% Travel direction: 21%	-	[99]

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Ghasempour-Mouziraji, M.; Afonso, D.; Sousa, R.A.d. A Short Review on the Wire-Based Directed Energy Deposition of Metals: Mechanical and Microstructural Properties and Quality Enhancement. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 9921. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14219921

AMA Style

Ghasempour-Mouziraji M, Afonso D, Sousa RAd. A Short Review on the Wire-Based Directed Energy Deposition of Metals: Mechanical and Microstructural Properties and Quality Enhancement. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(21):9921. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14219921

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ghasempour-Mouziraji, Mehran, Daniel Afonso, and Ricardo Alves de Sousa. 2024. "A Short Review on the Wire-Based Directed Energy Deposition of Metals: Mechanical and Microstructural Properties and Quality Enhancement" Applied Sciences 14, no. 21: 9921. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14219921

APA Style

Ghasempour-Mouziraji, M., Afonso, D., & Sousa, R. A. d. (2024). A Short Review on the Wire-Based Directed Energy Deposition of Metals: Mechanical and Microstructural Properties and Quality Enhancement. Applied Sciences, 14(21), 9921. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14219921

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A Short Review on the Wire-Based Directed Energy Deposition of Metals: Mechanical and Microstructural Properties and Quality Enhancement

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Metals Used in WDED and Types of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties

2.1. Iron-Based Alloys (Steels)

2.2. Titanium-Based Alloys

2.3. Aluminum-Based Alloys

2.4. Copper-Based Alloys

2.5. Mg and Ni Alloys

3. Quality Improvement

3.1. Machining

3.2. Heat Treatment

3.3. Surface Finishing

4. Practical Implications

5. Conclusions

Funding

Conflicts of Interest

References

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