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Review

Recent Advances in the Application of Agricultural Waste in Construction

by
Esmail Khalife
1,*,
Maryam Sabouri
2,
Mohammad Kaveh
3 and
Mariusz Szymanek
4,*
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Cihan University-Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Erbil 44001, Iraq
2
Scientific Research Center, Erbil Polytechnic University, Erbil 44001, Iraq
3
Department of Petroleum Engineering, College of Engineering, Knowledge University, Erbil 44001, Iraq
4
Department of Agricultural, Forest and Transport Machinery, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Głęboka 28, 20-612 Lublin, Poland
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(6), 2355; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14062355
Submission received: 23 January 2024 / Revised: 27 February 2024 / Accepted: 6 March 2024 / Published: 11 March 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Science and Technology)
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Abstract

:
On a global scale, millions of tons of diverse agricultural residues are generated annually. Most of these wastes are burned or dumped in landfills, which causes environmental pollution. Addressing environmental issues arising from agricultural waste materials, in addition to mitigating heating and cooling expenses in the construction sector, is an interesting challenge for researchers. The utilization of agricultural wastes in different parts of construction is producing positive findings day by day, and investigating research in this field is a curiosity for researchers. This short study reviewed the most recent achievements in using agricultural wastes as a substitute or additive material for construction. Using these wastes as aggregate, ash (as a supplementary for cement), or fibers for foam concrete, insulation materials, etc. has been reviewed. This review has focused on very recent published papers. Several studies have demonstrated the effective influences of agro-waste materials in construction, like retaining the compressive strength (155 MPa) of concrete at standard levels and reducing heat losses in buildings (69% energy savings for brick insulated using wheat straw), as well as sound insulation. The use of agro-waste materials for insulation positively improved thermal conductivity, costs, and energy savings. However, some wastes did not provide a high added value, which shows that more investigations still need be performed to fill this gap in the research. Considering the global scale of agricultural waste generation and the potential benefits to both the environment and construction industry, continued research in this area is essential.

1. Introduction

About five billion hectares, approximately 36% of the world’s land, are under cultivation [1]. This indicates that a large number of countries around the world depend on agricultural production economically [2]. Table 1 expresses the economic impact of the agriculture sector in 10 countries that produce some of the largest shares of the world’s total agricultural production. However, this dependence varies depending on the country’s location and their climate conditions. For instance, in Southeast Asian regions like Malaysia, Indonesia, and India, the palm is the most prominently produced crop, whereas in other countries like those in South America, maize and cane are prominent. In contrast, in some countries that have dry or semi-dry weather conditions, such as those in the Middle East, the amount of agricultural waste is not comparable to that of the more forested countries; however, agricultural wastes have a lot of applications, especially in rural areas. Due to the large amount of agriculture products like palm oil, cane, maize, wheat, coconut, etc., there are large amounts of agro-waste materials because of the increasing world population. All agricultural residues from the processing and production of agricultural yields (e.g., poultry, crops, meat, fruits, dairy, and vegetables) are named agricultural wastes. In countries that do not produce huge amounts of agricultural products, agricultural wastes amount to a lot of thrown-away materials that could be used as useful materials for construction, and this has attracted a lot of attention among researchers to investigate them. The significance of this review becomes apparent when considering the increasing trend in the publication of papers related to the utilization of agricultural wastes in construction (Figure 1). The amount of world agricultural waste is about 998 million tons/year [3]. These huge amounts of wastes are usually thrown away in landfills and could affect the environment’s condition due to the discarding of the waste on-site. A point that should not be overlooked is that the utilization of harvest and agricultural residues can vary depending on various factors, including their potential use for energy generation, soil enrichment through practices such as plowing to increase carbon content, and other agricultural applications [4].
The environmental issues of agro-waste materials have motivated scientists to find a way of reusing them as lightweight materials, like using them as aggregate, bar, or additives in concrete, using them to provide insulation, or using them as lightweight materials for construction, as well as protecting the environment from waste materials [5]. Using these materials in construction has a history of thousands of years, and some new ideas for these materials, like using the kernel shells of palms and coconuts, started appearing in studies around two decades ago [6]. Over time, there has always been competition between the different uses of agricultural waste materials, including applications such as their use as organic fertilizer or animal bedding in areas where animal husbandry is more common, or their use as a source of energy. In addition, some developing applications include producing biochar, biochemical, and pharmaceutical materials with a focus on extracts from certain agro-waste materials for pharmaceutical applications. Recently, the focus on the use of disposable agricultural materials for water treatment has also been considered. The competition between the superiority of each of these applications is based on the volume of available materials and the added value that they bring.
Firstly, many researchers have focused on developing the strength of oil palm shells, and lately, the compressive strength of these lightweight shells as concrete aggregate was developed to be greater than 40 MPa [7]. As a next step, some researchers explored the application of oil palm shells as aggregate in concrete for structural objectives to analyze the bending and shear stress-induced behaviors of reinforced concrete (RC) beams when using the shells and concrete slabs, as well as conducting structural analyses of palm oil clinker and coconut shells as aggregate in concrete regarding the flexural and shear behavior of RC beams [8,9,10,11,12]. Agricultural waste materials have also attracted a lot of attention as useful building materials to produce insulation materials from a thermal and acoustic point of view [13,14]. For this aim, several different agro-wastes have been evaluated as raw resources to build lightweight panels, bricks, blocks, etc. [15,16,17]. For this purpose, waste agricultural materials must be pretreated or processed: for instance, making composite board materials using compression molding, hot pressing, or extrusion techniques; extracting cellulose from agricultural residue and processing it with insulating foam and pretreatment using additives; removing impurities from rice husk ash; weaving coconut fibers into mats or blankets for insulation; etc.
This review presents a response to the following question: what are the very recent advances in the application of agricultural wastes in construction, and how do these innovations contribute to sustainable and environmentally friendly building construction? Therefore, this review focuses on providing a general idea to analyze the application and the performance of different materials used in concrete as aggregate and as supplementary materials for cement, as well as in building insulation. The findings reported by recently published studies (over almost five years) are summarized and evaluated in this review. The next important objective of this review is to provide useful information among researchers and engineers to generate interest for using waste agro-materials in lightweight construction, as well as for protecting the environment from the current concerns. This research contributes to the growing body of knowledge on sustainable construction practices and underscores the importance of exploring alternative materials to address environmental concerns on a global scale.

2. Agro-Wastes as Concrete Additives

In this section, firstly, the general attributes of the solid agro-wastes selected for the current review (i.e., pineapple, sugarcane, açai, coconut, rice, and wheat husk) will be argued, exposing general data about the characterization and availability of these wastes.

2.1. Waste from Pineapple

Pineapple is a typical example of a tropical fruit. The peels of this fruit are mostly utilized for animal feeding and the production of organic compost. However, the crown lacks specific applications and is frequently discarded in landfills as waste material [18]. The primary challenge associated with incorporating pineapple crowns into concrete lies in the extraction process, specifically in effectively removing impurities from the fibers [19]. Therefore, surface treatment of the pineapple crown has been identified as a helpful method in order to eliminate non-cellulosic compounds [20]. Based on the literature, it was found that one of the best treatments for removing hemicelluloses and lignin is the use of NaOH in the compound. Nevertheless, when applying alkaline treatment to the surface of agricultural fibers, environmental concerns cannot be ignored [21]. In addition to these environmental issues, this treatment is very costly. Figure 2 shows SEM images of both treated and natural pineapple crowns. As seen in this figure, alkaline treatment increases surface wrinkling and improves the adhesion between the cement and the fibers. Similar results were obtained when incorporating natural agro-waste like coconut fibers into mortar and concrete [21,22]. In one study, de Araujo Alves Lima et al. tested dual-hybrid fibers of jute, sisal, curauá, and ramie, and they emphasized that chemical treatment alters the morphological properties of jute fibers [23]. The researchers concluded that the optimal treatment varies based on the fiber type, noting that alkaline treatment improved the tensile attributes of a significant portion of the fibers, while a combination of alkalization and salinization treatments was more effective for the sisal fiber.
Lately, Karolina et al. tested the addition of 0.5, 1, and 1.5% pineapple fibers into cement and found that inclusion of the pineapple leaf fibers effectively improved the split tensile strength (by a 14.65% increase) and compressive strength (by a 15.61% increase) of concrete [24]. A similar study was conducted using the addition of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3% pineapple leaf fibers into concrete grade C30 [25]. The results showed that adding 0.3% fibers provided the highest compression (from 33.69 to 44.73 MPa) and tensile (3.69 to 6.55 MPa) strengths and other mechanical properties. Contradictory results were found at the higher levels of added pineapple in the concrete: when 2% fibers were added, significantly lower compressive strength was obtained (from 42 MPa for conventional concrete to 27 MPa for concrete containing 2% fibers) [26]. One of the probable reasons for this is that at higher fiber contents, achieving a uniform distribution and alignment of the pineapple fibers within the concrete matrix becomes challenging [27]. Poor dispersion and alignment can create weak points and voids, leading to a reduction in compressive strength.
In conclusion, surface treatment enhances the adhesion of fibers to cement, though environmental concerns and high costs accompany this method. Incorporating pineapple leaf fibers into cement shows promising improvements in split tensile strength and compressive strength, but higher levels reduce these strength values.

2.2. Waste from Sugarcane

Sugarcane is a chief source of sugar and alcohol [28], with Brazil being a major producer. During the COVID-19 pandemic, alcohol consumption was increased and in consequence the environmental worries surrounding sugarcane waste increased [29,30]. However, sugarcane is used for animal feeding and it has low added value, so it is not a very interesting subject for researchers. Nevertheless, some researchers have studied burning the sugarcane bagasse and using its ash as a additive material for cement [31]. Using agro-waste ash as a supplementary material for cement in construction is the most studied subject among the research in this field (Figure 3). Some findings disclosed that the temperature of burning bagasse influences the quality of the ash and subsequently the mortar and concrete [32]. This finding is consistent with the prior literature, which indicates that burning conditions are a key parameter when utilizing ash as a cement supplementary [33].
In a comprehensive review, Ahmad et al. surveyed the result of sugarcane bagasse ash as an additive in cement-based composites and asserted that the high amount of amorphous silica in the ash compound renders it a valuable pozzolanic material (a substance that, when combined with lime in the presence of water, forms cementitious compounds and enhances the strength and durability of concrete) and useful as a supplementary material for cement, leading to the diminishing of environmental concerns through reducing CO2 emissions [34]. Also, they found that the use of sugarcane ash incurs lower costs (8.65%) when employed in cement. One positive aspect of utilizing agro-waste ash in cement, often overlooked in discussions by other researchers, is the fact that using ash reduces the amount of water needed (from 0.9% for conventional concrete to 0.5% for concrete containing 15% ash) for the same workability because of the glassy surface texture of the ash. Ahmad et al. concluded that the strength properties of the suggested concrete increased with an optimal ratio (5–15%) of the ash. A comparable approach for this is presented in Figure 4. It was found that the addition of 20% sugarcane bagasse ash into concrete could highly increase its resistance to different acidic environments; however, its compressive strength decreased for the other ratios (5, 10, and 15%) [35]. This could be ascribed to the presence of silica in the ultra-fine particles of the ash, which reduces the porosity of the concrete matrix [36]. Similarly, Joshaghani and Moeini conducted comprehensive experimental tests by adding 3% and 6% nano-silica as well as 10–30% (with a span of 5%) sugarcane ash into cement. They discovered that the compound could withstand choloride environmental conditions for up to 90 days [37]. In a very recent study, Tayeh et al. emphasized that adding 3% sugarcane bagasse ash improved the compressive strength by 18% and 10% after 28 and 90 days of curing, respectively [38]. The enhancement in strength achieved through the addition of sugarcane bagasse ash can be attributed to the amorphous nature of sugarcane bagasse ash particles. These particles react with calcium hydroxide over time, leading to the formation of an increased amount of calcium silicate hydrate gel. The authors examined two additional ash samples (from cotton and rice) and observed similar results. The results showed a high accelerated corrosion process with respect to normal conditions. In addition, improvements in both the bulk resistivity and charge transfer resistance of the concrete were achieved through utilization of these nano-ash samples.
In summary, the burning conditions significantly affect ash quality, thereby influencing the mortar and concrete properties. Notably, the use of sugarcane ash is cost-effective and reduces water requirements in concrete, enhancing workability. Optimal ratios (5–15%) of ash contribute to increased strength properties in concrete, while higher percentages (20%) improve its resistance to acidic environments.

2.3. Coconut Shell Waste

The escalation of construction costs constitutes a crucial parameter influencing decisions in the construction industries of developed countries. Utilizing coconut shells as a natural source of aggregate in concrete could provide a practical solution for disposing agro-waste materials and consequently contributing to environment preservation [49]. The application of some agricultural waste like small-size coconut shells (20–600 mm) can be used as an aggregate material.
Evaluating the properties of coconut fibers has a key role for understanding how to incorporate them into RC. Also, owing to the structural properties of the coconut fibers, they can be employed as a filling material within the matrix or used as reinforcement (Figure 5). Furthermore, it is found from experiments that this fiber could absorb internal stresses when mixed with mortars [50,51].
Sekar and Kandasamy conducted a study to determine the optimal ratio of coconut fibers for both conventional and coconut shell concretes [52]. The obtained results showed that the highest compressive strength of 43.8 N/mm2 was attained for conventional concrete with coconut fibers at an aspect ratio of 83.3 and volume portion of 3%. This demonstrated a 45.5% increase compared to conventional concrete without coconut fibers, which measured 30.1 N/mm2 (Figure 5A). In cases where coconut aggregate was used in the concrete, the results disclosed that the compressive strength of the suggested concrete using coconut shell with coconut fibers reached 30 N/mm2 at an aspect ratio of two thirds and volume portion of 3%, which was a 17.2% increase compared to the coconut shell concrete without coconut fibers (25.6 N/mm2) (Figure 5B). In another study, coconut shell ash showed increasing compressive strength at 15% replacement, but with higher percentages, this property was decreased [53]. Hasan et al. recently published a study and their results showed that incorporating coconut shell aggregate (20%) in concrete reduced its compressive strength, but the addition of up to 50% of the additive met the standard values [54]. Similar findings were reported by Bhoj et al. [55], Sager et al. [56], and Odeyemi et al. [57].
In summary, the incorporation of small-size coconut shells as a natural aggregate should be used in concrete. The inclusion of coconut shells as aggregate decreases the compressive strength of concrete but it still meets the required standards. In addition, coconut shell incorporation with its fiber provides a better performance than just using the shell individually. Overall, utilizing coconut shells as concrete aggregate is a sustainable solution for disposing of this agro-waste material. Lastly, coconut shell ash is a good supplementary material for cement.

2.4. Waste from Rice Husk

Every year, a substantial amount of rice husk is disposed of, posing a lot of problems for rice producers [58]. The burning of husks contributes to air pollution and their dumping in landfills occupies land areas [59]. Additionally, the discarded husks lead to the production of methane by microorganisms, leading to more global warming [60]. Some countries utilize rice husks as a source of energy in power plants [61]. The by-product of this burning is ash, which researchers have used as an additive compound in cement for concrete. This is due to the presence of amorphous silica and carbon in the ash [62]. These supplementary materials highly improve the compressive strength of suggested foam concrete by up to 70% [63]. Other authors have also disclosed that the addition of 5–20% husk ash to foamed concrete increases energy absorption under impact. The workability of the foamed concrete increased by 5% with a 10% sugarcane filter cake ash, but this property declined at higher levels (15% and 20%) of the ash [64]. They attributed this to the low inter-particle friction and high porosity and water absorption by the ash compared to the cement. Makul et al. noted a lower thermal conductivity of the samples resulting from the inclusion of the additive [64].
Recently, Jayanthi et al. [65] investigated the effects of micronized rice husk and ground granulated blast furnace slag, two by-products of agricultural waste, when used as additives in concrete. These materials contain high value of silica. Interaction of this type of silica with hydration products like concrete improves the formation of additional calcium–silica–hydrate gel, resulting in improved strength and durability of the concrete. The authors tested 10, 20, and 30% micronized rice husk silica in concrete and the results showed that the maximum flexural strength was 5 MPa and the split tensile strength was about 4.5 MPa more than the control sample (11% increase) (Figure 6). They ascribed this improvement to the presence of pore-filling calcium silicate hydrate, while they reported that 20% additive provided the best durability result, overall.
In a very recent study, Alyami et al. [66] compared the effects of three different ashes from waste agriculture crops (olive, sugarcane leaf, and rice husk) to partially replace elements in cement and concrete. They claimed that a 50% replacement of the cement with a combination of 25% rice husk and 25% sugarcane leaf ashes could provide up to 155 MPa (for 28 days) for compressive strength, but this was not more than with the individual inclusion of the additives. In addition, the other combinations generally produced lower compressive strength values.
In an interesting recently published paper by Tayeh et al. [38], nano-powder derived from different wastes at very low percentages (1–3%) demonstrated a surprising improvement of up to 21% in compressive strength. This enhancement was achieved when rice husk (3%), sugarcane bagasse (3%), or cotton stalk (1%) ashes were used in the concrete as cement additives. They ascribed this improvement to the high pozzolanic impact due to the high content of amorphous silica in the additives.
In summary, rice husk ash as a cement additive significantly enhances the compressive strength of foam concrete by up to 70% based on results reported by some researchers due to the existence of amorphous silica and carbon in the ash. Replacing 5–20% of the cement with rice husk ash has been decided as an accepted ratio. However, some other researchers do not agree to this and indicates that the maximum should be 3%.

2.5. Nutshell Waste

Noaman et al. [67] studied the effects of adding different amounts of nutshells (ranging from 0.5 to 2.5% with an interval of 0.5%) obtained from walnuts, pistachios, and hazelnuts as cement supplements. They analyzed the mechanical properties and found that the highest supplement ratio correlated with the highest compressive strength. Moreover, the nutshells had a significant impact on the thermal conductivity of the mortar, wherein the 2.5% walnut supplementation decreased its thermal conductivity by 57%, compared to the pistachios and hazelnuts causing decreases of 48% and 45%, respectively. Their study found that higher nutshell ratios led to increased hardness, where pistachios showed the best results among other nutshells. Previously, Baran et al. [68] declared that an up to 5% replacement of cement with hazelnut shells could meet the necessary standards (EN 197-1) [69] for compressive strength. A higher ratio of finer particles had a better influence on increasing compressive strength due to the increased interactions among these particles and the surrounding matrix. Jannat et al. [70] confirmed that as the additive particle size becomes finer, the slump becomes lower, which is due to the higher surface-to-area ratio. However, this is not the only reason, and a higher carbon ratio also effects the results.
The addition of nutshells to fired bricks resulted in satisfactory compressive strength with respect to the several related national and international standards, whereas their addition into unfired bricks did not meet these standards. Low adhesion between the nutshells and the clay matrix was emphasized as the reason for this reduction. Nevertheless, the compressive strength of earth bricks could be enhanced by adding some other materials such as gypsum (10%), gypsum and Elazig Ferrochrome slag [71], and gypsum (3%) and lime (7%) [70].
In addition to the above research, the incorporation of plastic waste and agro-waste could improve some mechanical properties of tile. Soni et al. investigated different types of polyethylene incorporated with rice husk ash and sand and obtained reasonable water absorption for floor tile composites, including 15% rice husk ash + 15% high-density polyethylene [72]. In addition, these authors obtained compressive strength and flexural strength values of 24.79 and 4.895 (N/mm2), respectively [72]. However, in another study performed by the same researchers, the best ratio for hybrid tile composed of waste plastic, rice husk ash, and sand was 1:1:2 [73].
He et al. [74] evaluated using rice husk ash at 5% in concrete and found that this amount of ash could provide acceptable compressive strength that met the standard level. They also mentioned as an important fact that using this amount of ash could decrease the cost of preparing concrete with respect to conventional concrete. They declared that each 1 m3 concrete obtained from rice husk ash could reduce the cost from USD 159 to USD 122, which shows a 22% reduction. However, it is worth noting that the cost of agro-waste materials for construction can vary widely depending on several factors, including the type of agro-waste, its availability, processing requirements, and local market conditions. In addition, agro-waste materials such as rice husk ash, bagasse ash, coconut shell ash, and others are sometimes used in construction as supplementary cementitious materials or as aggregate. Therefore, based on the above conditions, the costs of using these materials in construction vary from being almost free to costing more than conventional construction. For example, He et al. calculated that if rice husk ash is milled, burned, and exported to another country it could increase the production price of 1 m3 concrete to more than USD 50 higher than conventional concrete [74]. Therefore, the goal of using waste agricultural materials is to focus on using local resources. Abdulrahman and Ali [75] showed that a 20% replacement of cement using peanut shell ash could provide satisfactory compressive strength of the concrete.
In summary, the utilization of nutshell waste as a cement supplement in construction materials reveals that higher percentages of nutshells positively correlate with increased compressive strength. Notably, the addition of nutshells to fired bricks met compressive strength standards, whereas incorporation into unfired bricks faced challenges. Additionally, the incorporation of plastic waste and agro-waste, such as rice husk ash, in tile production improved mechanical properties, with specific ratios demonstrating optimal results. Moreover, the use of agro-waste ash in concrete construction was found to provide acceptable compressive strength at a reduced cost; however, varying costs are associated with different factors, such as type, availability, processing requirements, and local market conditions.

3. Agro-Wastes as Building Insulation Materials

One of the interesting applications of agricultural wastes is their use as a powerful material for insulation instead of conventional materials. This has some benefits like renewability, compostablity, and a low rate of thermal conductivity [76]. There is minimal difference in the thermal conductivity and sound penetration rates between agricultural materials and other conventional materials [77]. This property was also observed when utilizing wheat straw to fill in clay-fired hollow bricks. It was found that the wheat straw could effectively save up to 69% energy, which was higher than straw-free bricks. Ozturk et al. [78] emphasized that the application of tea waste improved some mechanical properties, i.e., thermal conductivity (42%), porosity (56.5%), and specific gravity, and highly reduced the compressive strength of clay-fired bricks (by 79% when the added waste was at 12.5%). They reported that the insulation-related attributes of the bricks containing tea waste were increased. The authors asserted that tea waste could be utilized for construction and insulation purposes up to a 10% threshold. However, for insulation purposes, it could be used in quantities exceeding 10%. Experimental studies have also found a high similarity between corn cobs and extruded polystyrene from the point of view of their chemical composition. These findings suggest that corn cobs have enough thermal properties for applications in construction [14].
In a different study, Korjenic et al. studied jute, flax, and hemp, concluding that the appropriate combination of these natural fibers yields thermal insulation results comparable to common materials [79]. Mehrzad et al. utilized sugarcane bagasse waste to assess its thermal and sound insulation properties and found acceptable results for these purposes [80]. They achieved a thermal conductivity of 0.034 W/mK for the sample with a density of 100 kg/m3, and this value was increased to 0.042 W/mK for the sample with 200 kg/m3 density.
Onésippe et al. used sugarcane bagasse fibers to investigate the thermal features of reinforced cement composites [81]. They emphasized that the best ratio of added fibers was 1.5%, which increased the thermal diffusivity from 1.18 to 1.58 × 106 m2/s. The authors also reported that adding this natural fiber lowered the thermal conductivity of the cement composites. Overall, it was found that bagasse, rice husk, and coconut coir exhibit lower thermal conductivity among agro-waste materials [82].
Binici et al. utilized sunflower stalks in combination with some other agro-waste materials to produce rectangular blocks of 30 × 40 × 2.5 cm3 under different pressures [83]. They tested both the mechanical properties as well as the thermal transmittance of the samples. They obtained the lowest heat transfer coefficients for the samples containing sunflower stalks. In a separate study, Binici et al. examined a composite material consisting of vermiculite, sunflower stalks, wheat stalks, and gypsum for building insulation. They recorded thermal conductivity coefficients ranging from 0.063 to 0.334 W/mK for the samples based on the density of the samples [84]. More specifically, the minimum thermal conductivity was 0.166, which was recorded for the sample containing 25 g sunflower stalk sponge, 50 g wheat stalks, 150 g vermiculite, 140 g gypsum, and 110 g water with a density of 0.166 g/cm3. For better comparison, this parameter is 0.4 for materials like gypsum, and for glass wool it is 0.04.
Platt et al. assessed the effects of the orientation and position of wheat straw within wall insulation on its humidity and thermal properties [85]. Their results showed a 38% reduction in thermal conductivity; in addition, the designed package reduced the moisture permeability by up to 76%. The thermal conductivity of the sample wheat straw insulation, featuring fibers aligned perpendicular to the heat flow, exhibited a remarkable reduction of 38% compared to that of normal bales. Similar results were revealed previously by other researchers [86,87]. Bobet et al. incorporated peanut shells as an additive in bricks and reported a thermal conductivity of 0.155 W/mK at 25 °C [88]. This finding was in agreement with a previous paper, wherein a thermal conductivity of 0.09 W/mK was obtained using peanut shells [89]. In another noteworthy paper, Do et al. developed an aerogel from pineapple fibers using polyvinyl alcohol (as an adhesive agent) and water, resulting in a material with 99% porosity [90]. The results demonstrated a very low thermal conductivity for this aerogel, reaching up to 0.030 W/mK. They constructed thermal insulation with triple the performance compared to conventional materials. This improvement was also observed for sound insulation. The capabilities of pineapple leaves were also lately investigated by Suphamitmongkol et al., revealing that pineapple leaf composites showed better thermal properties than commercial products, including asbestos and polyethylene terephthalate fibers [91]. In comparison to glass fibers, the results showed similar values. Concerning the sound absorption parameter, the pineapple leaf fibers outperformed glass fibers, performed similarly to asbestos fibers, and exhibited lower performance than polyester fiber composites.
In conclusion, various tested agricultural by-products, including tea waste, sugarcane bagasse, corn cobs, and sunflower stalks, have shown competitive thermal conductivity, comparable to or better than conventional substances such as glass wool and gypsum. The same result was reported for incorporating several natural fibers together. Specific studies on wheat straw showed that the orientation of the straw influences its thermal conductivity, contributing to improved insulation efficiency, which should be investigated further. Moreover, innovative approaches such as developing aerogels could be a promising technique, offering a potential alternative to conventional materials.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Agro-Materials as Insulation

The features of biowastes vary depending on their chemical structure, the type of plant used, the production location, the local climate conditions of the products, and growth and harvesting conditions [92]. While there are several advantages to constructing products from agro-wastes, they also have some drawbacks, as shown in Table 2 [93,94,95,96,97,98]. Furthermore, it is important to ensure the proper utilization of these resources. Having an understanding of the disadvantages associated with using agro-wastes in building materials will allow the prevention of problems that may arise. In addition, these properties can be improved and optimized through specific treatments to transform agro-wastes into better materials for construction.
Cetiner and Shea found that wood waste could marginally provide better thermal insulation compared to conventional inorganic fibers, but the result was close to natural fibers. This improvement was ascribed to the superior hygric properties of wood waste [99]. Mehrzad et al. pointed out another drawback of using agro-waste for insulation. They emphasized that these materials need to be treated to combat flammability and fungi threats, a parameter that causes more costs and problems later on [80]. Moreover, the volatile organic compounds emitted from agro-waste materials have been evaluated by researchers and a negative effect of these compounds on human health was monitored [100]. From the other point of view, some evidence has suggested positive effects of the color of agricultural materials on human comfort and physiology [101].
In summary, while agro-wastes offer construction advantages, the associated drawbacks necessitate careful consideration. Understanding these disadvantages is crucial for problem prevention, and specific treatments can enhance agro-wastes for better construction materials. Notably, wood waste shows potential for thermal insulation, but challenges like flammability and fungi threats require attention. Also, evaluations of the volatile organic compounds emitted from agro-wastes underscore potential health concerns.

4. Conclusions

It has been frequently demonstrated that utilizing natural fibers and agro-waste materials for building products is an inexpensive, feasible, and practical option. To achieve sustainable solutions, these materials can be employed in various building applications, such as insulation boards, masonry bricks, and mortars. Given the continuous and widespread production of agricultural materials, a large quantity of them is thrown out as waste materials, which causes environmental problems and has adverse effects on human life. Incorporating these materials into buildings not only facilitates recycling but also represents an eco-effective solution for construction.
The application of sugarcane bagasse ash in concrete improved its compressive strength over different lengths of time, although there is no general consensus among researchers about using agro-waste ash in concrete. It was observed that combinations of different ashes and also the size of the additive particles had an increasing effect on the compressive strength and kept it higher than 155 MPa.
Coconut shells showed satisfactory results alongside decreasing physical properties of the concrete. However, when coconut shells and coconut fibers were added into the concrete, its compressive strength increased by 17% compared to fiber-free concrete.
Chemical treatment could increase the surface wrinkling of agricultural fibers and improve the adhesion between the cement and the fibers, but it may lead to environmental damage. In addition, the application of chemical treatments, particularly alkaline solutions, can significantly enhance the tensile and adhesion properties of natural fibers.
The application of agricultural fibers could effectively save energy for the insulation of buildings. An energy saving of 69% was reported after adding wheat straw into hollow clay bricks.
Yet some of the agro-waste applications in construction, like using ash as a cement additive, did not show a high added value. The environmental concern, economic costs, and high grinding cycles are the three main barriers of using agro-waste materials as cement supplementary materials, which shows that there is still a gap in the research.
However, among the research regarding the application of agro-waste materials that can be used in construction, despite the many advantages of using of these materials, including their low cost, better performance, and better insulation, some problems such as people’s low enthusiasm as well as the lack of proper building construction laws have become an obstacle preventing the expanded use of these materials in construction.
In conclusion, the utilization of natural fibers and agro-waste materials presents a promising avenue for sustainable construction practices. From improving the compressive strength of concrete to enhancing energy efficiency in insulation, these materials offer a range of benefits for building products. However, challenges such as environmental concerns, economic costs, and regulatory barriers persist, hindering their widespread adoption.

5. Future Directions

While the application of agro-waste materials shows potential in addressing the above-mentioned challenges, further research is needed to overcome existing barriers and maximize their benefits. Future studies should focus on optimizing processing techniques, exploring novel applications, and addressing the environmental concerns associated with chemical treatments. According to this review, it is suggested that future studies should focus on the following comments:
Reviewing the growth rate of agro-waste materials in the construction sector is recommended for future research. Besides this, there are few studies on chemical treatments for reducing fungal emissions, which should be focused on. In addition, reducing the flammability of agro-waste materials, especially for insulation, is a new topic for future researches.
It is necessary to conduct interviews with experts in the field to gain a better understanding of the obstacles preventing the more practical use of waste biomass in construction, alongside conducting survey studies to find the basic indicators for and routes to introducing biomass waste as an additive into markets. Moreover, researchers could investigate the combination of different waste bioproducts for insulation enhancement. Even positioning them in a combination of different orientations could result in favorable outcomes. Additionally, the durability of waste biomass materials in relation to thermal conductivity still requires more investigation; analyzing the effects of the thermodynamic properties of agro-waste materials utilized in construction is essential, and more studies must be conducted to discover the energy aspects of this area of study. Lastly, considering and assessing the life cycle of adding biowaste materials in concrete needs more inquiries.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.K. and M.S. (Maryam Sabouri); methodology, E.K. and M.K.; investigation, E.K., M.S. (Maryam Sabouri) and M.K.; resources, M.S. (Mariusz Szymanek); writing—original draft preparation, M.S. (Maryam Sabouri) and E.K.; writing—review and editing, E.K. and M.S. (Mariusz Szymanek). All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no specific grants from any public or commercial (etc.) funding agencies.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. We would like to confirm that we have no financial interests but want to disclose our personal interest in staying updated on innovative uses of waste materials in construction, which provides us with insights related to this work.

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Figure 1. The increasing trend among researchers of studying the impact of using agricultural wastes in construction (data obtained from Web of Science using the following keywords: agricultural waste AND concrete AND cement).
Figure 1. The increasing trend among researchers of studying the impact of using agricultural wastes in construction (data obtained from Web of Science using the following keywords: agricultural waste AND concrete AND cement).
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Figure 2. Pineapple fiber images under SEM: (a) without treatment; (b) treated using NaOH [20].
Figure 2. Pineapple fiber images under SEM: (a) without treatment; (b) treated using NaOH [20].
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Figure 3. Network map of keywords that have been used in published papers about additives used in concrete and cement, obtained from Web of Science.
Figure 3. Network map of keywords that have been used in published papers about additives used in concrete and cement, obtained from Web of Science.
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Figure 4. Impacts of sugarcane ash on split tensile strength, flexural strength, and compressive strength (in acidic environments) at 28 days (results obtained from a comparison of 11 experimental papers) [34]. Ahmed et al. [34] plotted each line of Figure 4 (A) using the data obtained from (1) [39], (2) [40], (3) and (4) [41], (5) [42], (6) [43], (7) [44], (8) [45], (9) [46], (10) [47], (11) [48]; (B) using the data obtained from (1) [39], (2) [40], (3) and (4) [41], (5) [42], (6) [43], (7) [44]; and (C) using the data obtained from [36].
Figure 4. Impacts of sugarcane ash on split tensile strength, flexural strength, and compressive strength (in acidic environments) at 28 days (results obtained from a comparison of 11 experimental papers) [34]. Ahmed et al. [34] plotted each line of Figure 4 (A) using the data obtained from (1) [39], (2) [40], (3) and (4) [41], (5) [42], (6) [43], (7) [44], (8) [45], (9) [46], (10) [47], (11) [48]; (B) using the data obtained from (1) [39], (2) [40], (3) and (4) [41], (5) [42], (6) [43], (7) [44]; and (C) using the data obtained from [36].
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Figure 5. Conventional concrete mixed with fibers (A) and proposed coconut shell concrete with fibers (B): compressive strength with respect to aspect ratio and volume portion (%) [52].
Figure 5. Conventional concrete mixed with fibers (A) and proposed coconut shell concrete with fibers (B): compressive strength with respect to aspect ratio and volume portion (%) [52].
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Figure 6. Improvement in (A) flexural and (B) split tensile strengths after 28 days. GPS stands for geopolymer concrete; G8, G10, and G12 stand for geopolymer concrete with ground/granulated blast furnace slag at molar ratios of 8, 10, and 12, respectively; M1, M2, M3, and M4 stand for 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% micronized rice husk silica, respectively [65].
Figure 6. Improvement in (A) flexural and (B) split tensile strengths after 28 days. GPS stands for geopolymer concrete; G8, G10, and G12 stand for geopolymer concrete with ground/granulated blast furnace slag at molar ratios of 8, 10, and 12, respectively; M1, M2, M3, and M4 stand for 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% micronized rice husk silica, respectively [65].
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Table 1. Top countries with the highest total agricultural gross domestic production (GDP) (in USD millions) exposed to dry climates and their shares of agricultural GDP and populations (thousands) [2].
Table 1. Top countries with the highest total agricultural gross domestic production (GDP) (in USD millions) exposed to dry climates and their shares of agricultural GDP and populations (thousands) [2].
RankCountryShare of Agriculture GDP (2019)Population (Millions) (2019)Share of Population in Agriculture Sector (2019)
1China7.6%142025%
2India18%138042%
3United States9%3341.3%
4Russia4%1465.8%
5I. R. of Iran12%8617%
6Brazil7.8%2129%
7Pakistan21%22336%
8Australia2.3%252.5%
9Italy2%593.8%
10Canada1.6%371.5%
Table 2. Cons and pros of using agricultural waste.
Table 2. Cons and pros of using agricultural waste.
Advantages (+)Disadvantages (−)
Renewable, recyclable, and biodegradable properties
Favorable LCA properties
Cost-effective production
Non-abrasive
Insulation properties
Comfortable for indoor environments
Lightweight for construction
Healthy for indoor environments
Good acoustic properties
High comfortability		Hydrophilic structures
Breaking down at high temperatures
High moisture content and water absorption potentiality
Swelling and dimensional variation
Short-lived durability
Suitable environment for insects and mold growth
Highly flammable
Low thermal conductivity
Fungal emissions
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Khalife, E.; Sabouri, M.; Kaveh, M.; Szymanek, M. Recent Advances in the Application of Agricultural Waste in Construction. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2355. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14062355

AMA Style

Khalife E, Sabouri M, Kaveh M, Szymanek M. Recent Advances in the Application of Agricultural Waste in Construction. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(6):2355. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14062355

Chicago/Turabian Style

Khalife, Esmail, Maryam Sabouri, Mohammad Kaveh, and Mariusz Szymanek. 2024. "Recent Advances in the Application of Agricultural Waste in Construction" Applied Sciences 14, no. 6: 2355. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14062355

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