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Review

Thermal Behavior of Concrete: Understanding the Influence of Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Concrete on Rigid Pavements

by
Alka Subedi
1,
Hyunhwan Kim
2,
Moon-Sup Lee
3,* and
Soon-Jae Lee
2
1
Materials Science, Engineering, and Commercialization, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX 78666, USA
2
Department of Engineering Technology, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX 78666, USA
3
Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology, Gyeong-si 10223, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 3213; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063213
Submission received: 19 February 2025 / Revised: 12 March 2025 / Accepted: 13 March 2025 / Published: 15 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Applied Thermal Engineering)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Concrete’s coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) is a critical property affecting the durability and performance of rigid pavements. This review paper examines the significance of CTE in pavement design and the factors influencing it, including the type of aggregate, cement composition, age, relative humidity, and curing conditions. Thermal stress due to temperature changes and moisture variation can lead to cracking, spalling, and warping in concrete pavements, impacting their performance. The paper also discusses experimental methods for measuring CTE, alongside recent advances like mechanistic–empirical pavement design and prediction models. Integrating CTE considerations into pavement design enhances the predictive accuracy of pavement performance, particularly in addressing issues like joint movement and cracking. By comprehensive literature review and synthesizing current research, the paper emphasizes the importance of integrating CTE considerations into pavement design for improved durability and performance predictions. The paper emphasizes the importance of integrating CTE considerations into pavement design for improved durability and performance predictions.

1. Background and Significance

The increase in body length, area, or volume as temperature rises is known as thermal expansion [1]. The change in length with temperature for a solid body may be expressed as the linear coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE); [2,3,4] it is a material property that is indicative of the extent to which a material expands upon heating [5]. This occurs because the material’s atoms and molecules have an increased average kinetic energy, which causes their distance from one another to grow. Most solid materials expand upon heating and contract when cooled.
This thermal behavior is important in construction materials like concrete since temperature-induced dimensional changes can lead to strains and possible cracking. Concrete, while widely used in construction material, is prone to cracking due to its brittle nature, especially under tensile stress. This stress can arise from various factors such as thermal stress, shrinkage, and mechanical loads [6]. Concrete is a heterogeneous material, and its properties are influenced by its constituent characteristics like cement paste, aggregates, moisture content, and age. It is also influenced by environmental factors like temperature variations and relative humidity [1,7].
Every time concrete is exposed to a temperature change, the concrete’s CTE causes deformations in unrestrained concrete structures. An increase in the CTE value results in an increase in the international roughness index (IRI), which is directly related to slab cracking and joint faulting [8]. When the deformations are limited, thermal stress arises. The magnitude of thermal stress is influenced by the temperature change, CTE, material modulus of elasticity, and degree of concrete member constraint [9].
In the case of concrete, several variables, including internal relative humidity (RH), mixture ingredient characteristics, moisture level and degree of hydration (age), affect it [10,11]. A dense concrete block’s CTE is typically 10 −5/°C [12,13], and concrete with CTE with an average value of 9.9 × 10−6/°C is considered suitable for pavement design [14]. The CTE values have a significant influence on the design and analysis of rigid pavements despite being quite small [15]. CTE is a crucial factor since temperature gradient not only impacts the pavement’s longitudinal features, but it can also result in deformation along the slab’s thickness [8]. To optimize concrete joint design, calculate stresses, design joint sealants, and choose sealant materials, the CTE is a crucial consideration in rigid pavement design.
Considering the thermal behavior of concrete, the composite coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is obtained by using the CTE value of two primary components of concrete, mortar and coarse aggregate [16]. Typically, the paste’s CTE is significantly higher than the aggregate’s. The value of CTE for aggregates differs based on aggregate minerology and typically ranges from 4 to 13 × 10−6/°C, and cement paste typically has values between 11 and 20 × 10−6/°C [13,17]. The volumetric percentage of the aggregate in the mix might affect the CTE of concrete since cement paste typically has a greater CTE than aggregate. Ref [18] recommended using materials with lower CTE, optimizing the mix proportions of concrete to reduce cement paste and increase coarse aggregate content, and using dense concrete with high elastic modulus.
The objective of this review paper is to provide a comprehensive understanding of concrete CTE, its significance in pavement design, and the factors that influence it, while exploring experimental methods and recent advances in the area. By providing a comprehensive review of CTE, this paper critically examines measurement techniques, focusing on integration with modern design approaches, emphasizing the interplay of influencing factors, and directly linking CTE to pavement performance. This research aims to significantly advance the understanding of concrete’s thermal behavior in rigid pavements beyond previous studies.

2. Methodology

A search of research papers, conference articles, manuals, and technical reports was conducted using the following keywords: concrete pavements, aggregates, coefficient of thermal expansion. To ensure a wide range of pertinent studies, the search spanned multiple scholarly databases, including Scopus, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, ASCE Library, TxDOT Library, and FHWA Library, covering studies from 1922 to 2025 to include both foundational research and recent advancements. Papers were selected based on their importance, accuracy, and relevance, with priority given to those that analyzed CTE through experiments, calculations, or simulations. Abstracts were first vetted to assess each study’s applicability. To make sure that only the most relevant research was included in the final analysis, full-text reviews were subsequently performed for a selection of papers. Extracted data focused on methodology, key findings, and contributions to the understanding of CTE in concrete pavements.

3. Mechanisms Influencing Thermal Expansion in Concrete

Thermal cracking in massive concrete structures is primarily caused by the exothermic hydration reaction of the cement binder, which generates heat. Concrete’s low thermal diffusivity leads to temperature rises and creates a time-dependent thermal gradient and spatial gradient contributing to cracking. These temperature variations cause thermal dilation in concrete, and when restrained, they generate stresses that can lead to cracks if they exceed a certain threshold [19]. The other factor is the binding between cement paste and coarse aggregates, which is weakened by temperature changes because they alter the moisture content and coefficient of expansion [20,21]. Maintaining high moisture levels during curing can reduce crack sensitivity by minimizing thermal expansion and largely eliminating autogenous shrinkage [22].
In the case of concrete pavement, temperature variation (daily and seasonal) or moisture content variation can have two kinds of deformation: vertical, throughout the slab’s depth (e.g., curling, wrapping, etc.); and horizontal (e.g., expansion, contraction, cracking, etc.). A study suggested that because of the effects of moisture content and cooling rate, the lower part of a concrete slab often has a higher CTE value. It was observed that due to a difference in drying shrinkage between the concrete slab’s top and bottom, more drying shrinkage at the top of the slab was observed [23]. Furthermore, temperature change induces tension and compression stress within the concrete, which creates a moment force from the bottom to the top of the slab. The adjoining slabs experience similar stresses, which mount over time until the internal forces surpass the concrete’s strength, leading to cracks at the ends of the slabs. The amplitude and dynamics of temperature fluctuations play a crucial role in this degradation process [12]. Two phenomena associated with concrete behavior due to temperature change are warping and curling. Curling refers to the deflection behavior of a concrete slab produced by a temperature difference along depth, and warping is caused by a moisture imbalance between the slab’s top and bottom surfaces [24].

4. Impact of CTE on Concrete Pavements

Concrete pavement’s capacity to withstand large loads and strains, workability, and durability have made it the preferred technology for bridge decks, roads, airports, etc. [25]. In comparison to flexible pavements, concrete pavements are more likely to develop thermal stress as concrete has low ability to expand and contract in response to temperature changes [26]. Significant thermal expansion or contraction before concrete gains strength may lead to development of transverse cracks [27]. In case of concrete pavement, thermal expansion in concrete creates tension and compression stresses, causing cracks, chipping, and warping, particularly in concrete slabs exposed to high temperatures. Significant temperature fluctuations between day and night increase stress, leading to the formation of cracks, potholes, and other defects [12]. This, in turn, affects the effectiveness of load transfer across joints by influencing their contraction and expansion. Efficient load transfer is vital for managing load-induced stress and, more importantly, for preventing faulting over the lifespan of the pavement [28]. CTE is a parameter which is required to understand joint movement, curling stress, and crack spacing and width for continuously reinforced concrete pavement [11]. CTE is a crucial characteristic in the design of concrete pavements because it can influence the axial and curling stresses, which, in turn, affects the pavement’s serviceability and performance. Early-age cracking, fatigue cracking, faulting, and joint spalling can all be influenced by CTE [17,29]. Proper consideration should be provided while placing the concrete pavement in summer, to avoid coincidence in peak ambient temperature and peak heat of hydration which may increase expansion of concrete [30]. Slab curling (as shown in Figure 1) occurs when differences in moisture content and temperature along the slab depth due to temperature gradient cause it to distort, usually curling upward at the edges. When slabs curl upward, they lose support from the sub-base, becoming more susceptible to fatigue cracking from traffic-induced deflections. Proper moisture control and slab design are important to reduce curling and its impact on slab performance [31]. Temperature curling reduces slab–base contact, causing failure under heavy truck loads [32].
CTE can cause spalling distress due to aggregate separation from surrounding paste, which was observed in some continuously reinforced concrete pavement in Texas. It was mainly observed due to the bond stress at the interface between coarse aggregate and paste which increases with the aggregate’s CTE [33].
In the case of Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement, the CTE regulates joint opening, which impacts load transfer via joints and cracks. Additionally, it influences the performance of joint sealants, the onset of spalling, and blow-up failure. The degree of longitudinal, transverse, and corner cracking caused by thermal curling in jointed concrete pavements is thought to be influenced by the concrete’s CTE [34].
A study was carried out involving a combination of field evaluations, laboratory testing, and data analysis to investigate the relationship between spalling and the CTE of concrete in continuously reinforced concrete pavement in Texas, and test results indicated that concrete in sections with spalling had CTE values greater than 9.9 × 10−6/°C [35]. The difference in CTEs between concrete and steel reinforcement (CTE ~11–13 × 10−6/°C) and concrete (CTE ~9–10 × 10−6/°C) causes thermal stresses in both the concrete and reinforcement [36]. Since longitudinal steel restricts the movement of the concrete, vertical tensile stresses in continuously reinforced concrete pavement rise with rise in CTE [37,38]. Using data from crack surveys and laboratory testing of samples from roughly 100 segments of in-service highway pavements across the state of California, Kohler et al. [34] examined the impact of CTE on jointed concrete pavement cracking. According to reports, more cracking was visible in pavements with CTE value greater than 9.9 × 10−6/°C.
Similarly, in research carried out to understand the horizontal cracking in continuously reinforced concrete pavement, it was found that concrete with a higher CTE has a greater potential to crack horizontally [39]. This is because higher CTE causes more volume change in the concrete due to temperature fluctuations, which, when limited by the longitudinal steel, results in substantial stress [39]. Similarly, results from field and laboratory analysis carried out in continuously reinforced concrete pavement in Texas found that concrete with a higher thermal expansion coefficient experienced greater shear and normal stresses, particularly at depths where steel bars are present, which contribute to the development of horizontal cracks [40].
The CTE of concrete has a substantial impact on the behavior of continuously reinforced concrete pavement, influencing volumetric changes and stress levels caused by thermal variations. While low-CTE aggregates are desirable since using hard and angular aggregates with lower CTE can enhance load transfer and improve crack behavior, local materials can be used to offset the disadvantages of greater aggregate CTE values by adjusting steel composition, bar size, and optimizing construction procedures [41]. It is advised to use the coarse aggregate type that provides lower CTE and elastic modulus values in continuously reinforced concrete pavement [39]. In a study on optimized aggregate gradation for concrete pavement to understand the gradation effect on CTE, the in situ test results showed that optimized aggregate gradation in concrete showed 14% lesser CTE compared to normal aggregate gradation, which is attributed to larger coarse aggregate volume [42].
Mechanistic–Empirical Pavement Design Guide is the first design methodology to directly include the CTE as an input parameter in concrete pavement design. In addition to all other inputs, such as traffic, climate, and material, Mechanistic–Empirical Pavement Design Guide also considers CTE values, concrete’s elastic modulus and the modulus of rupture for rigid pavement design, and pavement performance evaluation [14]. Tanesi et al. [43] stated that “The Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide possesses three hierarchical levels: Level 1 from actual tests resulting in higher accuracy, Level 2 from less than optimal testing or by calculations considering the individual CTE of the aggregates and the cement paste, and Level 3 from the agency database, user-selected default values, typical averages for the region, or a default value based on type of coarse aggregate”. Moreover, the integration of CTE considerations into Mechanistic–Empirical Pavement Design Guides has been shown to enhance the predictive accuracy regarding pavement performance.
The data obtained from level 1 are found to be more reliable than those from level 2 and level 3 since they are project-specific CTE testing data; however, the data are costly. Nilsen et al. [44] investigated the prediction of concrete’s mechanical properties, including its CTE, using machine learning. The study results showed that machine learning models, specifically random forest models trained with just 50% of the dataset, were more accurate in predicting CTE than level 2 and level 3 methods of the Mechanistic–Empirical Pavement Design Guide suggesting that machine learning could be used to accurately predict the CTE of concrete.

5. Experimental Methods for Measuring CTE of Concrete

Performing CTE testing will aid in improving the prediction of how mixture-specific thermal response will impact pavement performance [45]. Concrete’s CTE can be ascertained using a variety of test techniques. AASHTO T 336, “Standard Test Method for the Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Hydraulic Cement Concrete”, is the most utilized one. T 336 was accepted as a standard test method in 2009 and is based on AASHTO TP 60-00, “Provisional Test Method for the Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Hydraulic Cement Concrete”. All states’ Departments of Transportation use T 336 as their standard test technique, except for the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDoT), which employs a modified version of it [46]. In contrast to the Texas method, which determines the concrete CTE as the slope of the deformation versus temperature curve, the AASHTO TP60 method determines the CTE as the length change over a temperature change following the specimen’s attainment of thermal equilibrium [47].
The TxDoT method for calculating the CTE of concrete entails measuring the length change of concrete specimens exposed to different temperatures. Concrete specimens are made by cutting cores or cylinders to a predetermined length, soaking them in saturated lime water, and then measuring the length changes in a temperature-controlled water bath to calculate the concrete’s CTE. Temperature, displacement, and time are recorded at regular intervals when the temperature is cycled between 10 ± 1 °C (50 ± 2 °F) and 50 ± 1 °C (122 ± 2 °F). Plotting temperature against displacement and running regression analysis on the rising and falling temperature phases yields the CTE [48]. The different techniques used for measuring the CTE values of concrete are discussed in detail in Table 1.

6. Factors Affecting the CTE of Concrete

6.1. Aggregate Type and Properties

The CTE of the coarse aggregate has the greatest influence on the CTE of the concrete since it comprises most of the volume of the material [9,59]. With rising temperatures, aggregates expand almost linearly; the extent of this expansion is determined by the aggregate composition and characteristics while cement paste only expands up to 120 to 200 °C; after that, it contracts due to evaporation of water within the cement paste [60].
One of the properties desirable for aggregate use in concrete is low thermal expansion, which enhances the cement paste’s thermal compatibility [61]. When comparing concrete containing igneous and sedimentary aggregates, the former showed a lower average CTE and lower variability in the observed CTE [5] with quartz having the highest CTE followed by sandstone, granite, basalt, and limestones [62]. The CTE of other frequently used coarse aggregate types is mostly determined by their quartz concentration, with quartz having the highest CTE of all the coarse aggregate types frequently used in the building of concrete pavements [63]. While aggregates with high CTE, like quartz, contribute to increased thermal expansion, igneous materials with low thermal expansion, like granite and basalt, are preferred for enhancing the thermal compatibility of concrete. The CTE values of different aggregate types and concrete by aggregate type is presented in Table 2.
A study discovered that concrete with siliceous river gravel (SRG) has a greater CTE than concrete with crushed limestone (LS) where gravel had a CTE value of 12.6 × 10−6/°C, whereas limestone concrete had a value of 6.1 × 10−6/°C and river gravel concrete had a value of 8.9 × 10−6/°C [40]. The kind of coarse aggregate has a considerable impact on fracture width, with SRG portions consistently having greater cracks than LS sections in similar conditions [64,65]. This was also observed in a study carried out in continuously reinforced concrete pavement test section in Houston where greater crack widths were observed while using SRG as opposed to LS [66]. This is due to SRG’s thermal coefficient being around 60% higher than LS, producing more movement from temperature differentials and resulting in more severe cracking [67,68,69]. According to Won et al. [70], the aggregate’s silica content has a major impact on the concrete’s CTE. According to these investigations, the concrete’s CTE increases with its silica content.
Seven concrete mixes with various coarse aggregate mineralogy were tested in the lab for a study to examine the CTE, and the results indicated that limestone has the lowest CTE values. Furthermore, a study concluded that over time, CTE is impacted by the age of the concrete, increasing from 6.4% to 12.6% between 28 and 360 days [15].
The authors of [68] advised the use of coarse aggregates with low thermal coefficients; however, if a coarse aggregate with a high thermal coefficient is to be used, or if construction is carried out in a hotter climate, measures should be taken to keep the concrete set temperature at the minimum to minimize thermally induced stresses. Since CTE of aggregates determines certain construction and curing practices, the authors suggest that aggregates with thermal coefficients exceeding 4.4 × 10−6/°C may require additional measures to prevent cracking when exposed to temperatures above 32 °C [71]. Since aggregates are an integral part of the concrete, to reduce the thermal stress due to aggregates CTE, additional measures could be taken; e.g., Siddhiqui et al. [72] demonstrated that blending low-CTE aggregates with high-CTE aggregates is a potential method to reduce the CTE of concrete. They also suggested that the percentage of replacement and the change in blended-aggregate CTE in concrete have a linear relation.
Table 2. CTE values of different aggregate types and concrete by aggregate type [4,73].
Table 2. CTE values of different aggregate types and concrete by aggregate type [4,73].
Aggregate Type Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) 10−6/°C
AggregateConcrete
Granite7–98.50
Basalt6–87.80
Limestone 67.80
Dolomite 7–108.92
Sandstone 11–129.58
Quartz11–139.34
Marble 4–7
Siliceous Limestone 7–9
Siliceous River Gravel 11–13

6.2. Cement Composition

As the cement hydration process releases heat and concrete has relatively low strength in its early stages, CTE becomes a critical factor in evaluating the early-age performance of concrete pavements [28]. The cement paste’s moisture condition influences the properties of concrete. With the increase in temperature, capillary tension of the water present lowers the increasing swelling pressure. Dry or saturated concrete does not experience swelling pressure [23]. In a test conducted in the highway section in California, it was found that when the cement content rose by 40%, the CTE value also increased from 9.8 × 10−6/°C to 13.7 × 10−6/°C. This is because the cement paste creates a continuous matrix that embeds the aggregate, and it is more sensitive to the amount of cement paste, suggesting that cement significantly contributes to the thermal expansion properties of concrete [74]. Siddiqui et al. [9] suggested that concrete CTE can be decreased by lowering the cement content to the theoretical paste volume, i.e., just enough paste to bind the aggregates without excessive expansion. However, voids may be introduced if the cement paste volume is decreased below the theoretical paste volume, raising the CTE for saturated concrete samples. This shows that regulating the amount of cement in the concrete is crucial for maximizing CTE without compromising its overall performance.

6.3. Aging

Fresh concrete has high CTE values because it contains a lot of unbound water in the liquid phase, which has a CTE that is roughly seven times higher than that of mature concrete. Concrete exhibits solid material behavior later, as its microstructure begins to form, leading to a significantly lower and more stable CTE [53]. The study carried out to understand the effect of aging on CTE found that aging can significantly impact CTE, particularly within the first 8–10 h following placement, which is likely due to a combination of temperature and hydration effects, thereafter stabilizing at a rather constant value. Over time, age effects on CTE were found to be minimal [75]. The amount of variance brought about by varying curing time is comparable to that brought about by using various mixes for a specific curing period.
However, Won [76] suggests that concrete age has no effect on CTE readings for up to three weeks, and Alungbe et al. [77] also concluded that saturated concrete specimens showed no discernible variation between the 28-day and 90-day moist-curing times. Similarly, the study was carried out to measure the typical CTE values of pavements made of Portland cement concrete (PCC) using different aggregates used in Louisiana, and aging was found to have no statistically significant impact on CTE, with measured CTE at different ages (3, 5, 7, 14, 28, 60, and 90 days) fluctuating within 0.3 × 10−6/°C [78]. We can infer from the studies that aging has a variable and context-dependent impact on concrete CTE. Temperature and hydration influence CTE in the short term (the first 8–10 h), stabilizing at a more consistent value as the concrete ages particularly after the initial hydration period.

6.4. Relative Humidity and Curing Conditions

Yeon et al. [79] found that CTE values peak between 70% and 80% RH due to maximal capillary pressure, with a 3% difference at 100% RH, while [75] observed similar results with the highest CTE at 85% RH and the lowest at 100% RH and below 50%; other studies also report CTE being low at low RH, peaking around 70%, and decreasing at higher RH, reaching a minimum when water-saturated [80,81]. Therefore, we can conclude that CTE values peak between 70% and 80% RH and decrease at both higher and lower RH levels. Rapid temperature spikes from cement hydration, followed by uneven cooling, make early-age concrete particularly vulnerable to thermal cracking. The chance of thermal cracking can be decreased by managing the CTE. As the temperature rises, the gel water expands, increasing the meniscus’ radius, and according to the Kelvin equation, a larger meniscus results in less surface tension and more relative humidity.
CTE can be decreased by keeping the RH in pores near 100%. Internal curing techniques employing saturated lightweight aggregates or superabsorbent polymers can accomplish this. The benefit of internal curing is that it helps reduce autogenous shrinkage and CTE [82]. Therefore, while choosing a suitable CTE for design, the study’s findings highlight the necessity of establishing a standard curing time [83].

6.5. Influence of Supplementary Materials in Concrete CTE

CTE was not found to be considerably impacted by using different cementitious materials such as fly ash or ground granulated blast furnace slag for Portland cement concrete combinations including the same kinds of aggregates [45]. However, the addition of fly ash in concrete was found to lower the CTE particularly at an early age. Nevertheless, in the case of cement and fly ash paste, the CTE increases over time due to the ongoing pozzolanic reaction [58].
Seraj et al. carried out a study to explore the use of alternative supplementary cementing materials (SCMs) in concrete, to assess their performance compared to cement. The result showed that the CTE value would not be negatively impacted using SCM, as evidenced by the minimal variation in CTE values between the control and SCM-concrete specimens [84]. The application of superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) to regulate cementitious materials’ CTE was examined by [85], where the authors showed that adding SAPs lowers the CTE rise brought on by self-desiccation in combinations with low water-to-cement ratios. Smith et al. [86] studied the impact of Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) on CTE using 16 cores with varying RCA percentages. Specifically, when the RCA content rose from 0% to 100%, the CTE value dropped from 7.28 × 10−6/°C to 4.10 × 10−6/°C. The results revealed that as the RCA percentage increased, the CTE value decreased [87]. Similar findings were obtained by [88] where it was found that the mix with no RCA had the lowest CTE, and the next lowest was the mix with only 50% coarse RCA. However, in a study carried out to understand the feasibility and performance benefits of using RCA in CRCP [89], the authors found that no substantial difference was found between the CTE of concrete using RCA and NA. Overall, although some materials and additives can affect CTE, their effects are usually mild and contingent on the conditions and composition of the concrete.
Mehri et al. [90] investigated the suitability of latex-modified concrete using Styrene–Butadiene Rubber and Poly-Vinyl Acetate for repairing concrete pavements. Their findings revealed that latex-modified concretes exhibit a higher CTE compared to those with ordinary Portland cement concrete. This increase is attributed to the formation of a polymer film within the concrete, which minimizes the transition zone and improves aggregate compaction, resulting in more rapid thermal stress development with temperature fluctuations.

7. Discussion

The behavior of continuously reinforced concrete pavement is greatly influenced by CTE, which affects volumetric changes and stress levels brought on by thermal variations. Temperature-induced dimensional changes can cause structural strains that shorten pavements’ service lives by causing cracking, spalling, and warping. Therefore, it is essential to comprehend and manage CTE to guarantee the durability and proper operation of this vital infrastructure.
The CTE of concrete is not a fixed property but rather a complex characteristic influenced by a multitude of factors; as highlighted in a review, regulating the choice of material and composition is crucial for controlling CTE. In general, aggregates with lower CTE—like certain igneous rocks—are favored for improving thermal compatibility. On the other hand, aggregates that contain a lot of quartz have higher CTE values, which could result in more thermal stress and cracking. According to studies, under comparable circumstances, concrete manufactured with siliceous river gravel (SRG) has a higher CTE and experiences wider cracks compared to concrete made with crushed limestone (LS) under similar conditions. Available materials could be effectively used with proper construction methods with optimized gradation.
The composition of cement also influences CTE, with a higher cement content generally resulting in an increased coefficient of thermal expansion. Concrete’s thermal expansion stabilizes over time, particularly after the initial hydration period; therefore, it is important to comprehend this phenomenon in early age and take precautions to lessen its effects. This is due to the continuous cement paste matrix, which is particularly sensitive to thermal expansion. The review highlights that the effect of concrete age on CTE varies. Fresh concrete tends to have a higher CTE due to the presence of unbound water, which decreases as the microstructure develops. While some studies indicate that CTE stabilizes after the initial hydration phase with minimal long-term variation, others report changes within the first year. Relative humidity (RH) and curing conditions also play a crucial role, with peak CTE values typically occurring between 70% and 80% RH, while extremely high or low RH levels result in lower CTE. Sustaining high moisture levels through methods like internal curing can help reduce CTE and prevent cracking. The impact of SCMs on CTE is generally minor and context-dependent, with some research suggesting a slight reduction in early-age CTE when fly ash is used. Notably, incorporating RCA may lead to a decrease in CTE, whereas latex-modified concretes tend to exhibit a higher CTE.
For precise prediction of temperature responses and their effect on pavement performance, CTE testing is vital. Various testing techniques aid in understanding the behavior of concrete and its constituents which enable durable pavement design. The inclusion of CTE as an input parameter in the Mechanistic–Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) represents a significant advancement for pavement design. By considering variables like joint movement and cracking, this addition improves the prediction accuracy of pavement performance. For CTE input, the MEPDG provides a range of hierarchical levels that balance cost and accuracy. In addition, prediction models show promise in precisely forecasting concrete CTE, providing a substitute for conventional testing procedures or default settings.
Various experimental methods for measuring CTE exist, each with its own mechanisms, measurements, limitations, and precision. Advanced techniques such as volumetric methods are valuable for studying early-age CTE, while optical lever systems offer reliable results for road concrete. The choice of testing method should consider the specific research objectives and the limitations of each technique.
Therefore, this review reinforces the critical role of concrete’s CTE in the performance and durability of rigid pavements. A comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing CTE, the integration of CTE into modern pavement design methodologies, and the accurate measurement of this property are essential for developing resilient and long-lasting concrete pavements. Continued research into predictive models and effective mitigation strategies will further enhance the field of pavement engineering. Further development and validation of machine learning models for predicting concrete CTE involving larger and more diverse datasets, incorporating a wider range of input parameters (e.g., aggregate gradation, chemical admixtures), and exploring different machine learning algorithms to improve prediction accuracy is required. Furthermore, more field studies should be conducted to validate the impact of measured CTE values on actual pavement performance, and more detailed investigation on the influence of CTE on specific pavement distresses, such as joint faulting, corner breaks, and the development of longitudinal and transverse cracking under various traffic and environmental loading conditions, should be carried out.

8. Conclusions

The performance and durability of rigid pavements are significantly impacted by the CTE of the concrete. Temperature-induced dimensional changes in concrete can cause structural strains, leading to cracking and reduced pavement life. CTE is influenced by several variables, including age, relative humidity, cement mix, aggregate type, and curing conditions. This characteristic can result in problems including thermal stress, spalling, and warping in concrete pavements and influence joint movement, curling stress, and crack spacing. Various experimental techniques are available to calculate CTE; however, the real-life conditions affect CTE of the rigid pavement. Nevertheless, advances in pavement design, such as mechanistic–empirical approaches and machine learning models, are helping us to predict CTE more accurately.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design and have read and approved the final manuscript. A.S. contributed to study design, data collection, and writing. H.K., S.-J.L. and M.-S.L. contributed to editing and reviewing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by a grant from a government funding project (2025 National Highway Pavement Management System).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
CTECoefficient of thermal expansion
LSLimestone
PCCPortland cement concrete
RCARecycled Concrete Aggregate
RHRelative humidity
SCMsSupplementary cementing materials
SRGSiliceous river gravel

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Applsci 15 03213 g001
Figure 1. Portland cement concrete slab curling effect during day and night.
Figure 1. Portland cement concrete slab curling effect during day and night.
Applsci 15 03213 g001
Table 1. Different techniques for measuring CTE values of concrete.
Table 1. Different techniques for measuring CTE values of concrete.
Ref.Method MechanismMeasurement LimitationsPrecision
[43]AASHTO TP 60Saturated concrete sample subjected to a temperature gradient ranging from 10 °C to 50 °C and then back to 10 °C.The segments are repeated until the difference in the CTE between two successive segments is less than 0.9 × 10−6/°C.Calibration errors caused by using a stainless steel specimen with an incorrect CTE value can lead to inaccurate measurements [4].0.135 × 10−6/°C (within laboratory)
[4]AASHTO T 336-11:A saturated concrete sample is heated from 10 °C to 50 °C and then cooled back down.The CTE is calculated as the change in length per degree of temperature change, averaged over both the expansion and contraction phases. The test is repeated until the consecutive CTE values are within 0.3 × 10−6 per °C.The test has constraints regarding the size of the concrete sample and the temperature range it is capable of testing.0.12 × 10−6/°C
[4,49] CRD C 39-81A saturated concrete sample is heated from 5 and 60 °C. (i.e., broader range of temperature)CTE versus temperature curve is plotted to compute CTE values for the various temperature intervals.It may not accurately reflect the behavior of concrete under extreme temperature conditions outside this range.
[50]ASTM E831-14A smooth-surfaced specimen of 10 × 10 × 18 mm3 is subjected to a compressive force ranging from 1 to 100 mN. Temperature is raised by 5 °C every minute while recording expansion or contraction, the CTE is determined by analyzing the resultant data using a deformation vs. temperature graph.The test method is recommended for measuring CTE of 5 μm/(m·°C) or higher. It can still be applied to materials with lower or negative expansion values, but the accuracy and precision may be reduced. In addition to that since Thermomechanical Analysis tests only small amounts of material, the results may not accurately reflect the behavior of larger volumes of material.
[51]ASTM E228-22A prepared specimen (25–60 mm long, 5–10 mm in diameter) is placed in the dilatometer, where it is subjected to regulated temperature fluctuations while maintaining steady contact.Temperature-induced length changes are observed continuously or intermittently and CTE is computed.Best suited for materials with relatively high coefficients of linear thermal expansion, making it unsuitable for materials with very low expansion coefficients.
Additional Techniques and Methods
RefTechniquesProcedureMeasurementLimitationsBenefits
[52]Volumetric techniqueImmersing membrane-encased samples in a temperature-controlled oil bath and tracking mass changes.The measured temperature and strain are used to calculate the CTE with great precision for each temperature increment.Ensuring that the sample reaches thermal equilibrium with the buoyancy fluid during the temperature cycles. The temperature-dependent density changes of the buoyancy liquid.This approach addresses limitations of traditional linear measurement techniques, particularly during the fluid-to-solid transition of cement paste.
[53]CTE determination in early-age concreteThe test involves a concrete prism sample (75 × 75 × 295 mm3) subjected to a series of temperature cycles ranging from 25 °C to 30 °C, including a 15 min temperature ramp and a 4 h steady temperature.The gradual variations in temperature and thermal strain are used to compute CTE.Keeping a uniform temperature along the sample, avoiding external drying, and guaranteeing stress-free deformations are necessary for this method’s accuracy.Provide better insights into early-age concrete behavior.
[54]A linear test setup with an internal heating/cooling system allowed rapid thermal equilibrium and frequent CTE measurements using a flexible PVC mold and spiral tube, with results available as soon as 4.1 h after mixing.Deformation in the linear technique is usually monitored by either a Linear Variable Displacement Transducer (LVDT) or a Vibrating Wire Strain Gauge (VWSG).Sensor Limitations
[55]Optical lever system Using a temperature-controlled water bath, specimens were heated and cooled between 10 °C and 50 °C.The expansion of the specimens was transferred to an optical lever system via a fused quartz bar, and the deformation was recorded using a vernier caliper through the optical lever.A limitation of the basic optical lever method is the potential for increased error caused by the non-overlapping incident and reflected light within the telescope, which can affect measurement accuracy.It provides reliable and accurate results for determining the CTE of road concrete.
[56]CTE of cementitious mortarsPrismatic mortar specimens (25 × 25 × 285 mm) with stainless steel studs are air-cured for 100 days. Specimens are placed in a climatic chamber at 80 °C with controlled humidity (50%, 75%, or 98%) for 48 h to reach equilibrium.Length changes are recorded using a digital length comparator, while temperature is measured with an infrared thermometer at a fixed location. The measurement schedule includes 30 readings.Accumulative strain and temperature variation are computed over time, and a graph plotting these values is created. Linear regression is then applied to this graph to determine CTE.The methodology demonstrated a repeatability standard deviation of 0.08 × 10−6/°C, (comparable to the precision of AASHTO T 336). Accounts for significant influence of moisture
[57]Micromechanical prediction modelPrediction model considering the microstructure of concrete, incorporating the thermal and mechanical properties of its components, including aggregate size distribution.The model performs thermal stress analysis considering a temperature change (ΔT) in this composite material.Assumption and consideration made for model for different components such as shape of aggregates, the effect of moisture content, amount of air voids etc.The model, validated with Alabama concrete data, showed about 80% agreement with CTE values from AASHTO TP60 (2007), with even better accuracy after applying correction factors.
[58]Prediction model Methodology involved experimental testing of CTE, accounting for autogenous shrinkage, developing a theoretical model based on the volumetric proportions and CTEs of the constituent materials.Calibrating and verifying the model using experimental data, considering the influence of time, material properties, mix proportions, and temperature history.Age Applicability: paste at an age greater than 12 h. Dependence on Input Parameters.
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Subedi, A.; Kim, H.; Lee, M.-S.; Lee, S.-J. Thermal Behavior of Concrete: Understanding the Influence of Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Concrete on Rigid Pavements. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 3213. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063213

AMA Style

Subedi A, Kim H, Lee M-S, Lee S-J. Thermal Behavior of Concrete: Understanding the Influence of Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Concrete on Rigid Pavements. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(6):3213. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063213

Chicago/Turabian Style

Subedi, Alka, Hyunhwan Kim, Moon-Sup Lee, and Soon-Jae Lee. 2025. "Thermal Behavior of Concrete: Understanding the Influence of Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Concrete on Rigid Pavements" Applied Sciences 15, no. 6: 3213. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063213

APA Style

Subedi, A., Kim, H., Lee, M.-S., & Lee, S.-J. (2025). Thermal Behavior of Concrete: Understanding the Influence of Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Concrete on Rigid Pavements. Applied Sciences, 15(6), 3213. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15063213

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