Shaping and Characterization of Additively Manufactured Geopolymer Materials for Underwater Applications
Abstract
:Featured Application
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.2. Sample Preparation
2.3. Experimental Program
- Extrusion behavior—Extrusion should be as homogeneous as possible, without over- or under-extrusion and material loss.
- Material positioning—The material string should be deposited cleanly in conjunction with the printing speed and, if possible, should not create any voids in the component.
- Geometric accuracy—One layer should correspond to the cross-section created in the slicer. After all layers are applied, the component must not change its geometry significantly (no sagging) and should not deviate significantly from the target geometry.
2.4. Additive Manufacturing
2.5. Casting
2.6. Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Raw Materials Investigation
3.2. Fresh Paste Properties
3.3. 3D Printing Process
3.4. Comparison of the Properties of the Samples Made by Different Methods of Manufacturing
3.5. Structural Analysis
4. Conclusions
- Paste extrusion modeling can be used to generate solid bodies from fly ash-based geopolymer.
- By adding additives such as xanthan gum and superplasticizer, the rheological properties of the paste are modified to retain shape while being well extrudable.
- With the help of additive manufacturing, geopolymer samples with compressive strengths of up to 7.5 MPa and flexural strengths of up to 4.15 MPa after 28 and 35 days, respectively, have been produced. Compared to the average of the cast samples, the compressive strength of the printed samples was 5% (#21AB) and 9% (#20AB) lower. The flexural strength was, on average, 38% (#20AB) and 64% (#21AB) lower for printed samples.
- The sample series #21AB showed strong anisotropy between the tested orientations of the flexural strength samples. Values achieved for the “favorable” orientation (4.15 MPa) were almost 7.5 times as high as those for the other orientations (0.56 MPa). For a reliable prediction of strength, anisotropies that occur during the printing process must be avoided.
- The addition of more water (20% total in #20AB versus 11% in #21AB) resulted in better layer bonding and less anisotropy in sample series #20AB. Excessively adding water leads to pore formation and insufficient development of the gel phase and should, therefore, be avoided.
- The 3D-printed samples showed strong anisotropy, including the samples 3D printed underwater.
- The extrusion of layers under water is possible with the tested paste, but the desired hardening did not occur after 7 weeks of immersion in water.
- One of the problems was the printer’s discontinuous process path. In the future, directly generated and optimized process paths should be used instead of sliced solids. Such g-codes can be created using the program Rhinoceros and the Grasshopper plug-in.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
3D | Three Dimensional |
CAD | Computer-Aided Design |
SEM | Scanning Electron Microscopy |
STL | Standard Tessellation Language |
UW3DP | Underwater 3D printing |
XRF | X-Ray Fluorescence |
Appendix A
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No | Additive | Function | Source |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Attapulgite clay | Thixotropic thickener; improves yield stress due to particle characteristics | [29] |
2 | Magnesium alumino silicate | Thixotropy enhancer | [30] |
3 | Sodium carboxymethyl starch | Modifies viscosity and has a retarding effect, increases water retention and setting time of the geopolymer paste | [31] |
4 | Sucrose | Retarder that extends the setting time | [29] |
5 | Nano graphene | Influences workability, flowability, and shape stability | [32] |
6 | Xanthan gum | Improves material adhesion, as well as extrusion and nozzle behavior | [33,34] |
7 | Silica Fume | Controls yield stress and viscosity; its small spherical particles enable smooth extrusion | [35] |
No | Additive | Description |
---|---|---|
1 | Plasticizer | Commercially available admix from the company Jurga (Zbrudzewo, Polska) is used. |
2 | Burned clay | Burned clay is added to bind excess water in the mix. |
3 | Gorkal 70 | High-alumina cement (Górka Cement Sp. z o.o., Trzebinia, Poland) is mainly used for refractory applications and is characterized by its high Al2O3 content and short bonding time. |
4 | Methylcellulose | Methylcellulose (Instytut Technologii Chemicznej, Warsaw, Poland) is a commonly used thickening and gelling agent that is soluble in water. |
5 | Xanthan gum | Xanthan gum (Synthetika Sp. z o.o., Łódź, Poland) is used to improve printability and rheology. |
6 | Sealing additive (Waterproof) | Supports setting underwater; a sealing additive from the company Jurga (Jurga Sp. k., Zbrudzewo, Poland) is utilized. It is present in liquid form. |
Constituent | NaOH | H2O | Waterglass |
---|---|---|---|
Mass [g] | 628 | 2000 | 4900 |
Vol. [%] | 8.34 | 26.57 | 65.09 |
No | Designation | Fly Ash [g] | Sand [g] | Plasticizer [g] | Burned Clay [g] | Gorkal 70 [g] | Metylocellulose [g] | Xantan Gum [g] | Sealing Additive (Waterproof) [g] | Solution [g] | Additional Water [g] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | #2AB | 400 | 400 | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 196 | --- |
2 | #3AB | 350 | 350 | 0.28 | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 171.5 | --- |
3 | #4AB | 350 | 350 | 0.56 | --- | --- | --- | --- | 8.73 | 171.5 | --- |
4 | #5AB | 350 | 350 | 0.28 | --- | --- | --- | --- | 8.6 | 160.6 | --- |
5 | #6AB | 250 | 250 | 0.20 | --- | 100 | --- | --- | 6.17 | 155 | --- |
6 | #7AB | 100 | 100 | 0.20 | --- | --- | 30 | --- | 2.46 | 65 | --- |
7 | #8AB | 250 | 250 | --- | --- | 60 | 15 | --- | 7.2 | 150 | --- |
8 | #9AB | 3000 | 3000 | 2.50 | --- | 600 | 120 | --- | 83.4 | 1922 | --- |
9 | #10AB | 250 | 250 | 0.218 | 15 | 15 | 15 | --- | 6.81 | 140 | --- |
10 | #11AB | 4000 | 5250 | 5.5 | 115 | 340 | 115 | --- | 108.4 | 2231 | --- |
11 | #12AB | 350 | 350 | 0.28 | --- | 30 | --- | 21 | 8.75 | 390 | --- |
12 | #13AB | 2000 | 2000 | 2.00 | --- | 200 | --- | 150 | --- | 2750 | --- |
13 | #14AB | 300 | 300 | 0.24 | --- | 30 | --- | 9 | --- | 250 | --- |
14 | #15AB | 3000 | 3000 | 3.00 | --- | 300 | --- | 150 | --- | 3500 | --- |
15 | #16AB | 4000 | 4000 | 4.00 | --- | 160 | --- | 320 | --- | 4200 | 1000 |
16 | #17AB | 4000 | 5000 | 4.50 | --- | --- | --- | 180 | --- | 3000 | 1500 |
17 | #20AB | 3000 | 3750 | 3.38 | --- | --- | --- | 135 | --- | 2230 | 1000 |
18 | #21AB | 4000 | 4000 | 4.00 | --- | --- | --- | 130 | 100 | 3650 | --- |
Volume | Width [mm] | Length [mm] | Height [mm] |
---|---|---|---|
A | 180 | 180 | 50 |
B | 120 | 280 | 70 |
C | 200 | 180 | 50 |
D | 100 | 200 | 50 |
No | Parameter | Value |
---|---|---|
1 | Layer Height | 10 mm |
2 | Line Width | 20 mm |
3 | Infill Line Width | 20 mm |
4 | Wall line Count | 0 |
5 | Top/Bottom Thickness | 10 mm |
6 | Top/Bottom Layers | 0 |
7 | Infill Density | 100% |
8 | Infill Pattern | Zig Zag [90,90] |
9 | Infill Layer Thickness | 10 mm |
10 | Print Speed | 60 mm/s |
11 | Build Plate Adhesion | none |
Raw Material 1 | D10 [µm] | D50 [µm] | D90 [µm] | Mean Size [µm] | Span |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sand | 196.794 | 382.365 | 489.673 | 422.662 | 0.766 |
Fly ash | 2.867 | 18.820 | 57.531 | 26.692 | 2.907 |
No | Additive | Effect and Content | Suitability to 3D Printing |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Plasticizer | After addition, a significantly more resistance-free flow behavior is observed in the paste. Proportions from 0.04 to 0.1% are tested. The best results are achieved with an addition of 0.05%. | Yes |
2 | Burned clay | An attempt is made to add 1.24 to 3% of burnt clay, but no improvement in the properties can be observed at any proportion. | No |
3 | Gorkal 70 | Between 2 and 20% of Gorkal70 is added. This leads to a significant increase in viscosity and good test results. However, for over 7% added, the effect continued to increase over time, resulting in insufficient workability and the extrusion stopped. Best values seemed to be around 3 to 4%, though significantly more liquid is needed to achieve the desired consistency | Yes, in small quantities or with fast processing time |
4 | Methylcellulose | Adding 1.25 to 14% methylcellulose decreases the extrusion properties but considerably accelerates hardening. Although an addition of 3% achieved good results, the additive is unsuitable due to its large particle size. | Partial |
5 | Xanthan gum | The addition of 1.5 to 3% results in a strong cohesion in the material and a viscous behavior. By adding solution, the paste becomes extrudable and still retains its shape after extrusion. Significantly more liquid is needed to achieve the desired consistency. Values around 2% provide the best results. | Yes |
6 | Sealing additive (waterproof) | The sealing additive is added in the amount recommended by the manufacturer (1.23%) and improves the hardening of the paste under water. Although samples to which the additive is added harden more quickly, the strength is not sufficient for mechanical tests after 28 days | Partial (UW3DP) |
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Becher, A.F.; Zeidler, H.; Gądek, S.; Korniejenko, K. Shaping and Characterization of Additively Manufactured Geopolymer Materials for Underwater Applications. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 3449. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073449
Becher AF, Zeidler H, Gądek S, Korniejenko K. Shaping and Characterization of Additively Manufactured Geopolymer Materials for Underwater Applications. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(7):3449. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073449
Chicago/Turabian StyleBecher, Anton Frederik, Henning Zeidler, Szymon Gądek, and Kinga Korniejenko. 2025. "Shaping and Characterization of Additively Manufactured Geopolymer Materials for Underwater Applications" Applied Sciences 15, no. 7: 3449. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073449
APA StyleBecher, A. F., Zeidler, H., Gądek, S., & Korniejenko, K. (2025). Shaping and Characterization of Additively Manufactured Geopolymer Materials for Underwater Applications. Applied Sciences, 15(7), 3449. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073449