A Review on the Use of Microalgae for Sustainable Aquaculture
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Progress of Traditional Aquaculture
2.1. Problems in Aquaculture
2.2. Conventional Technologies and Solutions
2.2.1. Control of Water Quality
2.2.2. Use of Antibiotics or Medicines
3. Microalgae-Assisted Aquaculture
3.1. Principles of Microalgae-Assisted Aquaculture
3.1.1. Principles
3.1.2. Advantages
3.2. Microalgae-Based Wastewater Remediation
3.2.1. Mechanisms of Wastes Assimilation
Nitrogen Assimilation
Carbon Assimilation
3.2.2. Properties of Aquaculture Wastewater
3.2.3. Microalgae Cultivation Systems
Raceway Pond System
Revolving Algal Biofilm (RAB) System
3.3. Technologies for Biomass Production
3.3.1. Pretreatment of Wastewater
Solid Organics
Unbalanced Nutrients Profile
3.3.2. Algal-Bacterial Cooperation
3.4. Technologies for Biomass Harvesting
3.4.1. Criteria for Harvesting Technology Selection
3.4.2. Fungi-Assisted Harvesting
3.4.3. Flotation and Modified Flotation
3.5. Microalgae-Based Aquaculture Feed
3.5.1. Algal Species with Commercial Potential
3.5.2. Microalgae Feed for Aquaculture
Protein
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids
Special Pigments
Other Applications
4. Problems and Prospects
4.1. Potential Problems
4.2. Prospects
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Ahmed, N.; Thompson, S.; Glaser, M. Global Aquaculture Productivity, Environmental Sustainability, and Climate Change Adaptability. Environ. Manag. 2019, 63, 159–172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cao, L.; Wang, W.; Yang, Y.; Yang, C.; Yuan, Z.; Xiong, S.; Diana, J. Environmental impact of aquaculture and countermeasures to aquaculture pollution in China. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2007, 14, 452–462. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Adler, P.R.; Harper, J.K.; Takeda, F.; Wade, E.M.; Summerfelt, S.T. Economic evaluation of hydroponics and other treatment options for phosphorus removal in aquaculture effluent. HortScience 2000, 35, 993–999. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boyd, C.E. Chemical budgets for channel catfish ponds. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 1985, 114, 291–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lafferty, K.D.; Harvell, C.D.; Conrad, J.M.; Friedman, C.S.; Kent, M.L.; Kuris, A.M.; Powell, E.N.; Rondeau, D.; Saksida, S.M. Infectious diseases affect marine fisheries and aquaculture economics. Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci. 2015, 7, 471–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Abyar, H.; Younesi, H.; Bahramifar, N.; Zinatizadeh, A.A. Biological CNP removal from meat-processing wastewater in an innovative high rate up-flow A2O bioreactor. Chemosphere 2018, 213, 197–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Altmann, J.; Rehfeld, D.; Träder, K.; Sperlich, A.; Jekel, M. Combination of granular activated carbon adsorption and deep-bed filtration as a single advanced wastewater treatment step for organic micropollutant and phosphorus removal. Water Res. 2016, 92, 131–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Longo, S.; d’Antoni, B.M.; Bongards, M.; Chaparro, A.; Cronrath, A.; Fatone, F.; Lema, J.M.; Mauricio-Iglesias, M.; Soares, A.; Hospido, A. Monitoring and diagnosis of energy consumption in wastewater treatment plants. A state of the art and proposals for improvement. Appl. Energy 2016, 179, 1251–1268. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lu, Q.; Han, P.; Xiao, Y.; Liu, T.; Chen, F.; Leng, L.; Liu, H.; Zhou, J. The novel approach of using microbial system for sustainable development of aquaponics. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 217, 573–575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, X.; Steele, J.C.; Meng, X.-Z. Usage, residue, and human health risk of antibiotics in Chinese aquaculture: A review. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 223, 161–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Muziasari, W.I.; Pärnänen, K.; Johnson, T.A.; Lyra, C.; Karkman, A.; Stedtfeld, R.D.; Tamminen, M.; Tiedje, J.M.; Virta, M. Aquaculture changes the profile of antibiotic resistance and mobile genetic element associated genes in Baltic Sea sediments. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 2016, 92, fiw052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Leng, L.; Li, J.; Wen, Z.; Zhou, W. Use of microalgae to recycle nutrients in aqueous phase derived from hydrothermal liquefaction process. Bioresour. Technol. 2018, 256, 529–542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wang, J.; Zhou, W.; Yang, H.; Wang, F.; Ruan, R. Trophic mode conversion and nitrogen deprivation of microalgae for high ammonium removal from synthetic wastewater. Bioresour. Technol. 2015, 196, 668–676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Lu, Q.; Zhou, W.; Min, M.; Ma, X.; Chandra, C.; Doan, Y.T.; Ma, Y.; Zheng, H.; Cheng, S.; Griffith, R. Growing Chlorella sp. on meat processing wastewater for nutrient removal and biomass production. Bioresour. Technol. 2015, 198, 189–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lu, Q.; Li, J.; Wang, J.; Li, K.; Li, J.; Han, P.; Chen, P.; Zhou, W. Exploration of a mechanism for the production of highly unsaturated fatty acids in Scenedesmus sp. at low temperature grown on oil crop residue based medium. Bioresour. Technol. 2017, 244, 542–551. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- De-Bashan, L.E.; Hernandez, J.-P.; Morey, T.; Bashan, Y. Microalgae growth-promoting bacteria as “helpers” for microalgae: A novel approach for removing ammonium and phosphorus from municipal wastewater. Water Res. 2004, 38, 466–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gao, F.; Li, C.; Yang, Z.-H.; Zeng, G.-M.; Feng, L.-J.; Liu, J.-Z.; Liu, M.; Cai, H.-W. Continuous microalgae cultivation in aquaculture wastewater by a membrane photobioreactor for biomass production and nutrients removal. Ecol. Eng. 2016, 92, 55–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ansari, F.A.; Singh, P.; Guldhe, A.; Bux, F. Microalgal cultivation using aquaculture wastewater: Integrated biomass generation and nutrient remediation. Algal Res. 2017, 21, 169–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sirakov, I.; Velichkova, K.; Stoyanova, S.; Staykov, Y. The importance of microalgae for aquaculture industry. Review. Int. J. Fish. Aquat. Stud. 2015, 2, 81–84. [Google Scholar]
- Lu, Q.; Ji, C.; Yan, Y.; Xiao, Y.; Li, J.; Leng, L.; Zhou, W. Application of a novel microalgae-film based air purifier to improve air quality through oxygen production and fine particulates removal. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2019, 94, 1057–1063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roy, S.S.; Pal, R. Microalgae in aquaculture: A review with special references to nutritional value and fish dietetics. Proc. Zool. Soc. 2015, 68, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, X.; Xu, H.; Wang, X.; Wu, Z.; Bao, X. An ecological engineering pond aquaculture recirculating system for effluent purification and water quality control. CLEAN–Soil Air Water 2014, 42, 221–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paerl, H.W.; Otten, T.G. Harmful cyanobacterial blooms: Causes, consequences, and controls. Microb. Ecol. 2013, 65, 995–1010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lamb, J.B.; van de Water, J.A.; Bourne, D.G.; Altier, C.; Hein, M.Y.; Fiorenza, E.A.; Abu, N.; Jompa, J.; Harvell, C.D. Seagrass ecosystems reduce exposure to bacterial pathogens of humans, fishes, and invertebrates. Science 2017, 355, 731–733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bhatnagar, A.; Devi, P. Water quality guidelines for the management of pond fish culture. Int. J. Environ. Sci. 2013, 3, 1980. [Google Scholar]
- Randall, D.; Tsui, T. Ammonia toxicity in fish. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2002, 45, 17–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boopathy, R.; Bonvillain, C.; Fontenot, Q.; Kilgen, M. Biological treatment of low-salinity shrimp aquaculture wastewater using sequencing batch reactor. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2007, 59, 16–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mirzoyan, N.; Parnes, S.; Singer, A.; Tal, Y.; Sowers, K.; Gross, A. Quality of brackish aquaculture sludge and its suitability for anaerobic digestion and methane production in an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor. Aquaculture 2008, 279, 35–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hossain, M.; Aktaruzzaman, M.; Fakhruddin, A.; Uddin, M.; Rahman, S.; Chowdhury, M.; Alam, M. Prevalence of multiple drug resistant pathogenic bacteria in cultured black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon Fabricius). Glob. J. Environ. Res. 2012, 6, 118–124. [Google Scholar]
- Zou, S.; Xu, W.; Zhang, R.; Tang, J.; Chen, Y.; Zhang, G. Occurrence and distribution of antibiotics in coastal water of the Bohai Bay, China: Impacts of river discharge and aquaculture activities. Environ. Pollut. 2011, 159, 2913–2920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, P.; Su, C.; Li, B.; Qian, Y. Treatment of high-strength pharmaceutical wastewater and removal of antibiotics in anaerobic and aerobic biological treatment processes. J. Environ. Eng. 2006, 132, 129–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, T.; Yang, Y.; Pruden, A. Effect of temperature on removal of antibiotic resistance genes by anaerobic digestion of activated sludge revealed by metagenomic approach. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2015, 99, 7771–7779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sanz-Luque, E.; Chamizo-Ampudia, A.; Llamas, A.; Galvan, A.; Fernandez, E. Understanding nitrate assimilation and its regulation in microalgae. Front. Plant Sci. 2015, 6, 899. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lu, Q.; Chen, P.; Addy, M.; Zhang, R.; Deng, X.; Ma, Y.; Cheng, Y.; Hussain, F.; Chen, C.; Liu, Y. Carbon-dependent alleviation of ammonia toxicity for algae cultivation and associated mechanisms exploration. Bioresour. Technol. 2018, 249, 99–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Costache, T.; Fernández, F.G.A.; Morales, M.; Fernández-Sevilla, J.; Stamatin, I.; Molina, E. Comprehensive model of microalgae photosynthesis rate as a function of culture conditions in photobioreactors. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2013, 97, 7627–7637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lu, Q.; Zhou, W.; Min, M.; Ma, X.; Ma, Y.; Chen, P.; Zheng, H.; Doan, Y.T.; Liu, H.; Chen, C. Mitigating ammonia nitrogen deficiency in dairy wastewaters for algae cultivation. Bioresour. Technol. 2016, 201, 33–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Su, Y.; Mennerich, A.; Urban, B. Synergistic cooperation between wastewater-born algae and activated sludge for wastewater treatment: Influence of algae and sludge inoculation ratios. Bioresour. Technol. 2012, 105, 67–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hernández, D.; Riaño, B.; Coca, M.; García-González, M. Treatment of agro-industrial wastewater using microalgae–bacteria consortium combined with anaerobic digestion of the produced biomass. Bioresour. Technol. 2013, 135, 598–603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, X.-F.; Jiang, Y.; Shu, Y.; Hu, X.; Liu, L.; Luo, F. Effects of mining wastewater discharges on heavy metal pollution and soil enzyme activity of the paddy fields. J. Geochem. Explor. 2014, 147, 139–150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Collos, Y.; Harrison, P.J. Acclimation and toxicity of high ammonium concentrations to unicellular algae. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2014, 80, 8–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sfez, S.; Van Den Hende, S.; Taelman, S.E.; De Meester, S.; Dewulf, J. Environmental sustainability assessment of a microalgae raceway pond treating aquaculture wastewater: From up-scaling to system integration. Bioresour. Technol. 2015, 190, 321–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Boopathy, R.; Fontenot, Q.; Kilgen, M.B. Biological treatment of sludge from a recirculating aquaculture system using a sequencing batch reactor. J. World Aquac. Soc. 2005, 36, 542–545. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suhr, K.I.; Pedersen, L.-F.; Nielsen, J.L. End-of-pipe single-sludge denitrification in pilot-scale recirculating aquaculture systems. Aquac. Eng. 2014, 62, 28–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schulz, C.; Gelbrecht, J.; Rennert, B. Constructed wetlands with free water surface for treatment of aquaculture effluents. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 2004, 20, 64–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, W.; Li, Z. In situ nutrient removal from aquaculture wastewater by aquatic vegetable Ipomoea aquatica on floating beds. Water Sci. Technol. 2009, 59, 1937–1943. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Van Den Hende, S.; Beelen, V.; Bore, G.; Boon, N.; Vervaeren, H. Up-scaling aquaculture wastewater treatment by microalgal bacterial flocs: From lab reactors to an outdoor raceway pond. Bioresour. Technol. 2014, 159, 342–354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Norsker, N.-H.; Barbosa, M.J.; Vermuë, M.H.; Wijffels, R.H. Microalgal production—A close look at the economics. Biotechnol. Adv. 2011, 29, 24–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Richardson, J.W.; Johnson, M.D.; Outlaw, J.L. Economic comparison of open pond raceways to photo bio-reactors for profitable production of algae for transportation fuels in the Southwest. Algal Res. 2012, 1, 93–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boelee, N.; Temmink, H.; Janssen, M.; Buisman, C.; Wijffels, R. Balancing the organic load and light supply in symbiotic microalgal–bacterial biofilm reactors treating synthetic municipal wastewater. Ecol. Eng. 2014, 64, 213–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, H.; Lu, Q.; Wang, Q.; Liu, W.; Wei, Q.; Ren, H.; Ming, C.; Min, M.; Chen, P.; Ruan, R. Isolation of a bacterial strain, Acinetobacter sp. from centrate wastewater and study of its cooperation with algae in nutrients removal. Bioresour. Technol. 2017, 235, 59–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gross, M.; Wen, Z. Yearlong evaluation of performance and durability of a pilot-scale revolving algal biofilm (RAB) cultivation system. Bioresour. Technol. 2014, 171, 50–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gross, M.; Henry, W.; Michael, C.; Wen, Z. Development of a rotating algal biofilm growth system for attached microalgae growth with in situ biomass harvest. Bioresour. Technol. 2013, 150, 195–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Christenson, L.B.; Sims, R.C. Rotating algal biofilm reactor and spool harvester for wastewater treatment with biofuels by-products. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2012, 109, 1674–1684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- He, Y.; Wang, R.; Liviu, G.; Lu, Q. An integrated algal-bacterial system for the bio-conversion of wheat bran and treatment of rural domestic effluent. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 165, 458–467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mirzoyan, N.; Tal, Y.; Gross, A. Anaerobic digestion of sludge from intensive recirculating aquaculture systems. Aquaculture 2010, 306, 1–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schnurr, P.J.; Allen, D.G. Factors affecting algae biofilm growth and lipid production: A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 52, 418–429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, X.; Zhou, W.; Fu, Z.; Cheng, Y.; Min, M.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Chen, P.; Ruan, R. Effect of wastewater-borne bacteria on algal growth and nutrients removal in wastewater-based algae cultivation system. Bioresour. Technol. 2014, 167, 8–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, B.; Zhou, W.; Min, M.; Du, Z.; Chen, P.; Ma, X.; Liu, Y.; Lei, H.; Shi, J.; Ruan, R. Development of an effective acidogenically digested swine manure-based algal system for improved wastewater treatment and biofuel and feed production. Appl. Energy 2013, 107, 255–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Virkutyte, J.; Jegatheesan, V. Electro-Fenton, hydrogenotrophic and Fe2+ ions mediated TOC and nitrate removal from aquaculture system: Different experimental strategies. Bioresour. Technol. 2009, 100, 2189–2197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Park, J.; Jin, H.-F.; Lim, B.-R.; Park, K.-Y.; Lee, K. Ammonia removal from anaerobic digestion effluent of livestock waste using green alga Scenedesmus sp. Bioresour. Technol. 2010, 101, 8649–8657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Croft, M.T.; Lawrence, A.D.; Raux-Deery, E.; Warren, M.J.; Smith, A.G. Algae acquire vitamin B 12 through a symbiotic relationship with bacteria. Nature 2005, 438, 90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Herrera, L.M.; Garcia-Lavina, C.X.; Marizcurrena, J.J.; Volonterio, O.; de León, R.P.; Castro-Sowinski, S. Hydrolytic enzyme-producing microbes in the Antarctic oligochaete Grania sp.(Annelida). Polar Biol. 2017, 40, 947–953. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rurangwa, E.; Verdegem, M.C. Microorganisms in recirculating aquaculture systems and their management. Rev. Aquac. 2015, 7, 117–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olmos, J.; Paniagua-Michel, J. Bacillus subtilis a potential probiotic bacterium to formulate functional feeds for aquaculture. J. Microb. Biochem. Technol. 2014, 6, 361–365. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gultom, S.; Hu, B. Review of microalgae harvesting via co-pelletization with filamentous fungus. Energies 2013, 6, 5921–5939. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Şirin, S.; Trobajo, R.; Ibanez, C.; Salvadó, J. Harvesting the microalgae Phaeodactylum tricornutum with polyaluminum chloride, aluminium sulphate, chitosan and alkalinity-induced flocculation. J. Appl. Phycol. 2012, 24, 1067–1080. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, J.; Leng, L.; Ye, C.; Lu, Q.; Addy, M.; Wang, J.; Liu, J.; Chen, P.; Ruan, R.; Zhou, W. A comparative study between fungal pellet-and spore-assisted microalgae harvesting methods for algae bioflocculation. Bioresour. Technol. 2018, 259, 181–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhou, W.; Min, M.; Hu, B.; Ma, X.; Liu, Y.; Wang, Q.; Shi, J.; Chen, P.; Ruan, R. Filamentous fungi assisted bio-flocculation: A novel alternative technique for harvesting heterotrophic and autotrophic microalgal cells. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2013, 107, 158–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gultom, S.; Zamalloa, C.; Hu, B. Microalgae harvest through fungal pelletization—co-culture of Chlorella vulgaris and Aspergillus niger. Energies 2014, 7, 4417–4429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mukherjee, G.; Singh, S.K. Purification and characterization of a new red pigment from Monascus purpureus in submerged fermentation. Process Biochem. 2011, 46, 188–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, W.; Cheng, Y.; Li, Y.; Wan, Y.; Liu, Y.; Lin, X.; Ruan, R. Novel fungal pelletization-assisted technology for algae harvesting and wastewater treatment. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2012, 167, 214–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, J.; Hu, B. A novel method to harvest microalgae via co-culture of filamentous fungi to form cell pellets. Bioresour. Technol. 2012, 114, 529–535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wrede, D.; Taha, M.; Miranda, A.F.; Kadali, K.; Stevenson, T.; Ball, A.S.; Mouradov, A. Co-cultivation of fungal and microalgal cells as an efficient system for harvesting microalgal cells, lipid production and wastewater treatment. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e113497. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Laamanen, C.A.; Ross, G.M.; Scott, J.A. Flotation harvesting of microalgae. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 58, 75–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lei, X.; Chen, Y.; Shao, Z.; Chen, Z.; Li, Y.; Zhu, H.; Zhang, J.; Zheng, W.; Zheng, T. Effective harvesting of the microalgae Chlorella vulgaris via flocculation–flotation with bioflocculant. Bioresour. Technol. 2015, 198, 922–925. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rwehumbiza, V.M.; Harrison, R.; Thomsen, L. Alum-induced flocculation of preconcentrated Nannochloropsis salina: Residual aluminium in the biomass, FAMEs and its effects on microalgae growth upon media recycling. Chem. Eng. J. 2012, 200, 168–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vandamme, D.; Foubert, I.; Meesschaert, B.; Muylaert, K. Flocculation of microalgae using cationic starch. J. Appl. Phycol. 2010, 22, 525–530. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ndikubwimana, T.; Zeng, X.; Murwanashyaka, T.; Manirafasha, E.; He, N.; Shao, W.; Lu, Y. Harvesting of freshwater microalgae with microbial bioflocculant: A pilot-scale study. Biotechnol. Biofuels 2016, 9, 47. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elkady, M.; Farag, S.; Zaki, S.; Abu-Elreesh, G.; Abd-El-Haleem, D. Bacillus mojavensis strain 32A, a bioflocculant-producing bacterium isolated from an Egyptian salt production pond. Bioresour. Technol. 2011, 102, 8143–8151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Banerjee, C.; Ghosh, S.; Sen, G.; Mishra, S.; Shukla, P.; Bandopadhyay, R. Study of algal biomass harvesting using cationic guar gum from the natural plant source as flocculant. Carbohydr. Polym. 2013, 92, 675–681. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, M.; Wu, W.; Zhou, P.; Xie, F.; Zhou, Q.; Mai, K. Comparison effect of dietary astaxanthin and Haematococcus pluvialis on growth performance, antioxidant status and immune response of large yellow croaker Pseudosciaena crocea. Aquaculture 2014, 434, 227–232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Choubert, G.; Mendes-Pinto, M.M.; Morais, R. Pigmenting efficacy of astaxanthin fed to rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss: Effect of dietary astaxanthin and lipid sources. Aquaculture 2006, 257, 429–436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Scott, S.D.; Armenta, R.E.; Berryman, K.T.; Norman, A.W. Use of raw glycerol to produce oil rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids by a thraustochytrid. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 2011, 48, 267–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu, J.; Huang, J.; Jiang, Y.; Chen, F. Molasses-based growth and production of oil and astaxanthin by Chlorella zofingiensis. Bioresour. Technol. 2012, 107, 393–398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Graziani, G.; Schiavo, S.; Nicolai, M.A.; Buono, S.; Fogliano, V.; Pinto, G.; Pollio, A. Microalgae as human food: Chemical and nutritional characteristics of the thermo-acidophilic microalga Galdieria sulphuraria. Food Funct. 2013, 4, 144–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu, J.; Sun, Z.; Zhong, Y.; Gerken, H.; Huang, J.; Chen, F. Utilization of cane molasses towards cost-saving astaxanthin production by a Chlorella zofingiensis mutant. J. Appl. Phycol. 2013, 25, 1447–1456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xi, T.; Kim, D.G.; Roh, S.W.; Choi, J.-S.; Choi, Y.-E. Enhancement of astaxanthin production using Haematococcus pluvialis with novel LED wavelength shift strategy. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2016, 100, 6231–6238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kang, C.D.; An, J.Y.; Park, T.H.; Sim, S.J. Astaxanthin biosynthesis from simultaneous N and P uptake by the green alga Haematococcus pluvialis in primary-treated wastewater. Biochem. Eng. J. 2006, 31, 234–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tibbetts, S.M.; Milley, J.E.; Lall, S.P. Chemical composition and nutritional properties of freshwater and marine microalgal biomass cultured in photobioreactors. J. Appl. Phycol. 2015, 27, 1109–1119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walker, A.B.; Berlinsky, D.L. Effects of partial replacement of fish meal protein by microalgae on growth, feed intake, and body composition of Atlantic cod. N. Am. J. Aquac. 2011, 73, 76–83. [Google Scholar]
- Paibulkichakul, C.; Piyatiratitivorakul, S.; Sorgeloos, P.; Menasveta, P. Improved maturation of pond-reared, black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) using fish oil and astaxanthin feed supplements. Aquaculture 2008, 282, 83–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fontenot, Q.; Bonvillain, C.; Kilgen, M.; Boopathy, R. Effects of temperature, salinity, and carbon: Nitrogen ratio on sequencing batch reactor treating shrimp aquaculture wastewater. Bioresour. Technol. 2007, 98, 1700–1703. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Animal Type | TN (mg/L) | NH3-N (mg/L) | TP (mg/L) | COD (mg/L) | Total Solids (g/L) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Shrimp | 361 | 90 | NA | 1321 | NA | [41] |
NA a | 1023.84 | 28.08 | 239.76 | 904.2 | 21.6 | [28] |
NA | 777.87 | 50.25 | 383.91 | 348.8 | 20.1 | |
NA | 533.42 | 23.84 | 458.92 | 2494 | 14.9 | |
Shrimp | >365 | 83.7 | NA | 1593 | NA | [42] |
NA | 110.8 | 0.07 | NA | 19.7 | NA | [43] |
Shrimp | >395 | 101.7 | NA | 1201 | 13.1 | [27] |
Rainbow trout | 1.18 | 0.27 | 0.19 | 17.6 | 0.01 | [44] |
Crucian carp | 6 | 0.9 | >0.7 | NA | NA | [45] |
Water eel | 12.4 | 4.6 | 5.2 | 48 | NA | Our lab b |
Crucian carp | 47.6 | 72.0 | NA | 368 | 1.02 | Our lab c |
Harvesting Cost | Safety Level | Time Consumption | |
---|---|---|---|
Centrifugation | High (Energy-intensive centrifugation equipment) | High | Short |
Filtration | High (Frequent replacement of filter blocked by algal cells) | High | Short |
Gravity-driven sedimentation | Low | High | Long (Repulsive force among negatively charged algal cells) |
Flocculation by chemicals | Low | Low (Addition of toxic or unhealthy chemicals) | Short |
Harvesting by edible fungi | Low | High | Short |
Flotation | Low | High | Short |
Microalgae | Fungi | Harvesting Efficiency | Conditions | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chlorella sp. | Penicillium sp. | 98.2% | Fungal pellets; 30–34 °C; pH: 4.0–5.0; Agitation speed: 120–160 rpm | [67] |
Chlorella sp. | Penicillium sp. | 99.3% | Fungal spores; 40 °C; pH: 7.0; Agitation speed: 160 rpm | |
Chlorella vulgaris | Aspergillus oryzae | 93% | Fungal spores; Heterotrophic culture; 25 °C; Agitation speed: 150 rpm; 3-day | [68] |
Chlorella vulgaris | Aspergillus sp. | Almost 100% | 25 °C; pH: 5.0–6.0; Agitation speed: 100 rpm; 2-day | [71] |
Chlorella vulgaris | Aspergillus niger | >60% | Fungal spores; 27 °C; pH: 5.0; Agitation speed: 150 rpm; 3-day | [72] |
Chlorella vulgaris | Aspergillus fumigatus | >90% | Fungal pellets; 28 °C; Agitation speed: 150 rpm; 2-day | [73] |
Scenedesmus quadricauda | Aspergillus fumigatus | >90% | ||
Pyrocystis lunula | Aspergillus fumigatus | Around 30% |
Strain | Culture Medium | Protein (%) | Lipid (%) | Carbo Hydrate (%) | Value-Added Compound | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Thraustochytrium sp. | Medium with glycerol | NA | 38.95 | NA | EPA and DHA (37.88% of total lipid) | [83] |
Chlorella zofingiensis | Cane molasses | NA | 30–50 | NA | Polyunsaturated fatty acids (36.89–49.16% of fatty acid profile) | [84] |
Scenedesmus sp. | Soybean oil extraction effluent | 53.3 | 33.4 | NA a | EPA (15.89% of fatty acid profile) | [15] |
Galdieria sulphuraria | Modified Allen Medium | 26.5 | 1.14 | 69.1 | Dietary fiber (54.1% of carbohydrate) | [85] |
Galdieria sulphuraria | Modified Allen Medium | 32.5 | 1.77 | 62.9 | Astaxanthin (575 mg/kg) | |
Chlorella zofingiensis | Cane molasses | NA | NA | NA | Astaxnathin (56.1 mg/L) | [86] |
Chlorella zofingiensis | Cane molasses | NA | 30-50 | NA | Astaxnathin (13.6 mg/L) | [84] |
Haematococcus pluvialis | OHM medium | NA | NA | NA | Astaxnathin (>15 mg/L) | [87] |
Haematococcus pluvialis | Primary-treated wastewater | NA | NA | NA | Astaxnathin (80 mg/L) | [88] |
Botryococcus braunii | NA | 39.9 | 34.4 | 18.5 | Essential amino acids (54.4 g/100 g protein) | [89] |
Tetraselmis chuii | NA | 46.5 | 12.3 | 25.0 | Essential amino acids (45.5 g/100 g protein) | |
Phaeodactylum tricornutum | NA | 39.6 | 18.2 | 25.2 | Essential amino acids (45.2 g/100 g protein) | |
Porphyridium aerugineum | NA | 31.6 | 13.7 | 45.8 | Essential amino acids (63.9 g/100 g protein) |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Han, P.; Lu, Q.; Fan, L.; Zhou, W. A Review on the Use of Microalgae for Sustainable Aquaculture. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 2377. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9112377
Han P, Lu Q, Fan L, Zhou W. A Review on the Use of Microalgae for Sustainable Aquaculture. Applied Sciences. 2019; 9(11):2377. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9112377
Chicago/Turabian StyleHan, Pei, Qian Lu, Liangliang Fan, and Wenguang Zhou. 2019. "A Review on the Use of Microalgae for Sustainable Aquaculture" Applied Sciences 9, no. 11: 2377. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9112377