SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines: The Advantage of Mucosal Vaccine Delivery and Local Immunity
Abstract
:1. Respiratory Tract Infections and Mucosal Immune Responses
2. Mucosal Versus Systemic Vaccines
3. SARS-CoV-2
3.1. Pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2
3.2. Virulence Factors of SARS-CoV-2
3.3. SARS-CoV-2 Variants
3.4. Immunity against SARS-CoV-2
4. Treatments against SARS-CoV-2 by Monoclonal Antibodies (mAbs) and Vaccination
4.1. Therapeutic mAbs
4.2. Vaccination against SARS-CoV-2
4.2.1. Systemic Vaccines against SARS-CoV-2
Vaccine Type/ Platform | Expressed SARS-CoV-2 Component | Approved COVID-19 Vaccine | Developer | Dosage Number and Schedule | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nucleoside | Modified mRNA encoding S protein | COMIRNATY (BNT162b2) | BioNTech SE, Pfizer Inc. | Two doses, 3 weeks apart | [166] |
Modified mRNA encoding S protein | Moderna vaccine (mRNA-1273) | Moderna | Two doses, 4 weeks apart | [167] | |
Modified adenovirus vector | Encoding S protein | VAXZEVRIA (ChAdOx1-nCoV-19) | AstraZeneca, University of Oxford | Two doses given 4 to 12 weeks apart | [168] |
Covishield (ChAdOx1 nCoV-19) | Serum Institute of India | Two doses given 12 weeks apart | [169] | ||
Ad26CoV2.S | Johnson & Johnson | One time dose | [170] | ||
CONVIDECIA (Ad5-nCoV) | CanSino Biologics Inc. | One time dose | [171] | ||
Sputnik V | Gamaleya Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology | Two doses given 3 weeks apart | [172] | ||
Inactivated SARS-CoV-2 | BBIBP-CorV | Sinopharm | Two doses, 3 weeks apart | [173] | |
CoviVac | Russian Academy of Sciences | Two doses given two weeks apart | [174] | ||
CoronaVac | Sinovac Biotech Ltd. | Two doses given 2 weeks apart | [175] | ||
COVAXIN (BBV152) | Bharat Biotech | Two doses given 4 weeks apart | [176] | ||
VLA2001 | Valneva | Two doses given 4 weeks apart | [177] | ||
Adjuvanted protein subunit | Dimeric RBD (with aluminium hydroxide) | ZF2001 | Chinese Academy of Sciences | Three doses given 30 days apart | [178] |
Recombinant RBD fusion heterodimer of the Alpha and the Beta variants of SARS-CoV-2 (with an oil-in-water emulsion based on squalene (SQBA)) | PHH-1V (Bimervax) | HIPRA | Booster dose (for 16 years and older age group) | [179] | |
Peptide Subunit | A peptide vaccine composed of three short peptides derived from SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S454–478, S1181–1202, and S1191–1211) conjugated to SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein | EpiVacCorona | Vektor State Research Centre, Russia | Two doses, 3-4 weeks apart | [180] |
Recombinant protein | S protein nanoparticle | NUVAXOVID (Nvx-CoV-2373) | Novavax | Two doses, 3 weeks apart | [181] |
Covovax | Serum Institute of India | Two doses, 3 weeks apart | [182] |
4.2.2. Mucosal Vaccines against SARS-CoV-2
Vaccine Type/ Platform | Expressed SARS-CoV-2 Component | Vaccine Name | Developer | Phase | Clinical Trial Identifier | Application | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Viral Vector (Replicating) | live-attenuated influenza virus vector-based expressing SARS-CoV-2 RBD | dNS1-RBD | Beijing Wantai | Approved | ChiCTR2000037782 ChiCTR2000039715 ChiCTR2100048316 | Two intranasal doses, 14 or 21 days apart | [183] |
Replication deficient Influenza A (CA4-DelNS1) virus expressing RBD domain of S protein | DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBDOPT1 | University of Hong Kong, Xiamen University and Beijing Wantai Biological Pharmacy | Phase 3 | ChiCTR2100051391 | Two intranasal doses, 14 days apart | [184] | |
Respiratory Syncytial virus expressing S protein | MV-014-212 | Meissa Vaccines, Inc. | Phase 1 | NCT04798001 | Single intranasal dose, or 2 intranasal doses 36 days apart | [185] | |
Human adenovirus serotype 5 expressing S protein and nucleocapsid | hAd5-S-Fusion + N-ETSD | ImmunityBio Inc. | Phase 1b | NCT04591717 | Single subcutaneous dose followed by single sublingual dose, 21 days apart | [186] | |
Adenoviral vector expressing WA1 S protein | BBV154 | Bharat Biotech International Limited | Approved | NCT05522335 | Two intranasal doses, 28 days apart | [187] | |
Viral Vector (Non-replicating) | Parainfluenza virus 5 expressing WA1 S protein | CVXGA1/PIV5-SARS-CoV-2 | CyanVac LLC | Phase 1 | NCT04954287 | Single intranasal dose | [188] |
Adenoviral vector expressing S protein | SC-Ad6-1 | Tetherex Pharmaceuticals Corporation | Phase 1 | NCT04839042 | Single intranasal dose, or 2 intranasal doses one month apart | [189] | |
Adenoviral vector expressing S protein | ChAdOx1/AZD1222 | University of Oxford and AstraZeneca Biopharmaceuticals | Phase 1 | NCT04816019 | Single intranasal dose | [190] | |
Adenoviral vector expressing WA1 S protein | Ad5-nCoV-IH (Convidecia Air) | CanSinoBio | Approved | NCT04552366 | Two doses with different administration routes (2 intranasal doses, 1 intramuscular and 1 intranasal dose, 28 days apart | [191] | |
Adenoviral vector | Sputnik V/Gam-COVIDVac | The Gamaleya Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology | Approved | NCT04954092 NCT05248373 | Single intranasal dose | [192] | |
Attenuated SARS-CoV-2 WA1 strain | CoviLiv | Codagenix/Serum Institute of India | Phase 3 | ISRCTN15779782 | Two intranasal doses, 28 days apart | [193] [194] | |
Live attenuated virus | RBD adjuvanted with aluminium hydroxide | CIGB-669 (RBD + AgnHB) (Mambisa) | Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (CIGB) | Phase 2 | RPCEC00000345 | Two intranasal dose, 28 days apart, or One intramuscular dose followed by 2 intranasal doses, 28 days apart | [195] |
Protein subunit | S protein encapsulated by an artificial cell membrane | ACM Biolabs ACM-SARS-CoV-2- beta ACM CpG vaccine candidate (ACM-001) | ACM Biolabs | Phase 1 | NCT05385991 | Single dose, after full vaccination with any registered and commercial SARS-CoV-2 vaccines | [196] |
Recombinant S protein | RAZI-COV PARS | Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute | Approved | IRCT20201214049709N2 | Two intramuscular doses, followed by 1 intranasal dose | [197] |
5. Prime-Boost Vaccination against SARS-CoV-2
6. B-Cell Peptide/Mimotope-Based Vaccine
7. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
CD | Cluster of differentiation |
COVID-19 | coronavirus disease 2019 |
ELISA | Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay |
EMA | European Medicine’s Agency |
FDA | American and Druga Administration |
IFN-γ | Interferon-gamma |
IL | Interleukin 2 |
RBD | Receptor-binding domain |
RBM | Receptor-binding motif |
SARS | Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome |
TFH | T follicular helper cells |
Th1 | T helper cell type 1 |
Th2 | T helper cell type 1 |
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Name | Date of Approval | Treatment | Targeting Epitope | Administration Route | Neutralization Activity against the SARS-CoV-2 Variant Delta (EC50, ng/mL) [135] * | Fold-Reduction of Neutrlization Activity (EC50, ng/mL) against Delta BA.2, BA.5, BA.2.75.2, XBB, BQ.1, and BQ.1.1 Variants (Fold-Reduction) [135] * | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BA.2 | BA.2.75.2 | BA.5 | BQ.1 | BQ.1.1 | XBB | ||||||
Bebtelovimab | February 2022 | Therapeutic | RBD | Intravenous | 0.4 | ||||||
Sotrovimab | May 2021 | Therapeutic | RBD | Intravenous | 98.6 | ||||||
Casirivimab | November 2020 | Therapeutic Or Post-exposure prophylaxis | RBM | Intravenous or sub-cutaneous | 14.7 | ||||||
Imdevimab | 20.1 | ||||||||||
Cilgavimab | December 2021 | Pre-exposure prophylaxis | RBD | Intramuscular | 21.7 | ||||||
Tixagevimab | 12.4 |
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Tobias, J.; Steinberger, P.; Wilkinson, J.; Klais, G.; Kundi, M.; Wiedermann, U. SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines: The Advantage of Mucosal Vaccine Delivery and Local Immunity. Vaccines 2024, 12, 795. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12070795
Tobias J, Steinberger P, Wilkinson J, Klais G, Kundi M, Wiedermann U. SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines: The Advantage of Mucosal Vaccine Delivery and Local Immunity. Vaccines. 2024; 12(7):795. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12070795
Chicago/Turabian StyleTobias, Joshua, Peter Steinberger, Joy Wilkinson, Gloria Klais, Michael Kundi, and Ursula Wiedermann. 2024. "SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines: The Advantage of Mucosal Vaccine Delivery and Local Immunity" Vaccines 12, no. 7: 795. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12070795