Interventions to Reduce COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy among Black and African American Individuals in the United States: A Systematic Literature Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Search Strategy
2.2. Screening Process and Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria
2.3. Data Extraction
3. Results
3.1. Number of Studies Identified
3.2. Type and Impact of the Interventions
3.3. Communication Interventions
3.4. Organizational Partnership Interventions
3.5. Distribution Interventions
4. Discussion
5. Limitations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Database | Search Terms | Results | Date of Search |
---|---|---|---|
PubMed | (“COVID-19 Vaccines”[[M1] Mesh]) AND (“Vaccination Refusal” [Mesh] OR “Vaccin * [M2] Acceptance”) AND (“Race Factors”[Mesh] OR “Racial Groups”[Mesh] OR “black”[Title/Abstract] OR “african american”[Title/Abstract] OR “african-american”[Title/Abstract] OR racia * [Title/Abstract] OR race[Tiab]) | n = 165 | 16 November 2022 |
Embase | (“sars-cov-2 vaccine”/exp OR “coronavirus disease 2019”/exp) AND “vaccine”/exp AND (“vaccine refusal”/exp OR “vaccine hesitancy”/exp OR “vaccine acceptance”/exp) AND (“black”:ti,ab OR “african american”:ti,ab OR “african-american”:ti,ab OR “racia *”:ti,ab OR “race”:ti,ab) AND [embase]/lim | n = 263 | 24 November 2022 |
Web of Science | (coronavirus OR “corona virus” OR coronavirinae OR coronaviridae OR betacoronavirus OR covid19 OR “covid 19” OR nCoV OR “CoV 2” OR CoV2 OR sarscov2 OR 2019nCoV OR “novel CoV” OR “wuhan virus”) (All Fields) and (vaccin * OR immunizat * OR innoculat * OR booster) (All Fields) and (black OR “african-american” OR “african american”) (All Fields) and (accept * OR hesitan * OR refusal) (All Fields) and Review Article or Article or Early Access (Document Types) and Article or Early Access or Review Article (Document Types) and Article or Early Access or Review Article (Document Types) | n = 306 | 7 December 2022 |
PsycINFO | Any Field: Coronavirus “vaccin * hesitancy” OR Any Field: “vaccin * refusal” OR Any Field: “vaccin * acceptance” OR Any Field: “vaccin * attitudes” AND Any Field: Black * OR Any Field: race OR Any Field: “Racial and Ethnic Attitudes” AND Any Field: “Covid-19” OR Any Field: “COVID-19” | n = 110 | 20 December 2022 |
Cochrane | “COVID-19” OR “Coronavirus” OR “Covid-19” OR “coronavirus” OR “corona virus” OR covid19 OR “covid 19” OR “2019nCoV” in All Text AND “Black * [M3] ” OR “african-american” OR “african american” in All Text AND “vaccin * hesitancy” OR “vaccin * refusal” OR “vaccin * acceptance” OR “vaccin * attitudes” in All Text—[M4] (Word variations have been searched) | n = 11 | 23 December 2022 |
CINAHL | (coronavirus OR “corona virus” OR covid19 OR “covid 19” OR 2019nCoV) (vaccin * OR immunizat * OR innoculat * OR booster) (accept * OR hesitan * OR refusal) (black OR “african-american” OR “african american”) | n = 117 | 29 December 2022 |
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Citation | Study Design | Sample | Comparison Group | Geographic Area | Setting | Type of Intervention | Outcome Measures | Key Findings * |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Communication | ||||||||
Ahmed et al., 2022 [12] | Longitudinal | 30,826 patients at least 65 years old. The majority of patients (24,211/30,826, 78.5%) live in a priority zip code. 19,372 participants were Black or African American | None | Washington, D.C. | Nonprofit health care system | Text message-based intervention using Tavoca platform | (1) Preferred communication method (2) Appointment was scheduled (3) Received the first and second dose | Text messages followed by phone calls were an effective strategy to get African American patients to schedule an appointment to get the COVID-19 vaccination |
Dhanani and Franz, 2022 [13] | Experimental | 743 participants who resided in the U.S., 244 of whom identified as Black | Control (no messaging) | U.S. | Online | Messaging | Vaccine acceptance and hesitancy | Messaging is an effective strategy to increase vaccine acceptance and reduce vaccine hesitancy among Black Americans |
Feifer et al., 2021 [14] | Cross-sectional | Employees at Genesis HealthCare (27,729), 21.0% of whom were Black or African American | Employees from different racial/ethnic groups, especially white employees | U.S. | Long-term care centers | More equitable information sessions, social media campaigns, and access to educational materials | Vaccine acceptance | More equitable information sessions, social media campaigns, and access to educational materials were an effective strategy to increase vaccine acceptance among Black employees |
Gadarian et al., 2022 [15] | Cross-sectional | 2117 adult respondents, 471 of whom identified as Black | Participants from different racial/ethnic groups, especially white participants, or a control | U.S. | Online | Shared information endorsed by experts | Vaccine interest and intention to vaccinate | Messages from same-race/ethnicity experts was not an effective strategy to improve vaccine interest and intention to vaccinate among racial and ethnic minority groups |
Peteet et al., 2022 [16] | Cross-sectional | 220 adult Black churchgoers | None | Western U.S. | Virtual | Webinar hosted by an academic- community partnership team | Vaccine hesitancy | A webinar hosted by an academic- community partnership team was an effective strategy to reduce vaccine hesitancy among Black churchgoers |
Reddinger et al., 2022 [17] | Randomized trial | 3668 unvaccinated respondents, 675 of whom identified as Black or African American | Different racial/ethnic groups, especially those who are religious, conservative, or parents; control | U.S. | Online | Targeted messages | Vaccine hesitancy | Targeted messages matched to broad demographic groups was not an effective strategy to reduce vaccine hesitancy among unvaccinated Black respondents |
Stoner et al., 2022 [18] | Experiment | 150 Black or African American adults ages 18–29 who are residents of Georgia, Alabama, or North Carolina | None | Georgia, Alabama, and North Carolina | Virtual | Narratives | Development of a digital health intervention | Stoner et al. developed but did not test the effect of a digital health intervention on vaccine hesitancy among Black or African American adults. The intervention was only pilot tested on 4 individuals |
Partnerships | ||||||||
Abdul-Mutakabbir et al., 2022 [19] | Case study | 260 adults, 5 of whom identified as Black | None | San Bernardino County, California | Faith-based and community organizations | Partnership between an academic institution and faith and community leaders | Vaccinations received | Partnerships between academia and faith-based and community leaders was an effective strategy to reach non-Hispanic Black communities |
AuYoung et al., 2023 [20] | Qualitative | Individuals living in or visiting California at the time of different outreach activities; all ages (percent who identified as Black or African American not stated) | None | California | Virtual and in-person (community health fairs and other community events including community vaccination events; public spaces) | Statewide alliance | Vaccine hesitancy and uptake | A combination of multiple strategies, including communication methods, languages, and trusted messengers were successfully used to reach diverse communities across California. A practical example included participating in interviews for Black/African American newspapers |
Distribution | ||||||||
Burkhardt et al., 2022 [21] | Cross-sectional | Patients in 3 pediatric primary care practices, serving 33,000 children, affiliated with Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, 72% of whom identified as Black | Different racial groups | Ohio | 3 pediatric primary care practices affiliated with Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center. Two of the practices were in economically disadvantaged urban settings; the third practice was in the suburbs geographically nearer rural communities | Making vaccines easier to access by offering to administer them during medical appointments | Vaccine uptake | Offering to administer vaccines during medical appointments was an effective strategy to increase vaccine uptake among Black patients and their household members |
Chan et al., 2022 [22] | Observational feasibility study | 13,942 health-care employees, 566 of whom identified as Black | Different racial/ethnic groups | Washington and Oregon | A health-care organization made up of six hospitals and more than 50 primary care and specialty care clinics spanning two states | Rapid deployment of multiple tactics | Vaccine uptake | The rapid deployment of multiple tactics (virtual town halls, confidential employee hotline, department huddles, written educational material, and accessible vaccination stations) was an effective strategy to increase vaccine uptake among Black employees |
Lane et al., 2023 [23] | Retrospective cohort study | 93,224 Medicare patients who received care in a high- touch capitated network, 40,201 of whom were non-Hispanic Black | Different racial/ethnic groups | U.S. (Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Virginia, Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas) | Online | Increased access to health care | Vaccine uptake | Increasing access to health care was an effective strategy to increase vaccine uptake among non-Hispanic Black patients |
Citation | Name of Intervention | What They Did | Did It Work? (Yes/No) |
---|---|---|---|
Communication interventions | |||
Ahmed et al., 2022 [12] | Text message-based COVID-19 vaccine outreach program | “Developed SMS text messages using the Tavoca platform [to inform] patients of their vaccine eligibility and [allow] them to indicate their interest in scheduling an appointment via a specific method (email or phone) or indicate their lack of interest in the vaccine” (Ahmed et al., 2022) | Yes |
Dhanani and Franz, 2022 [13] | Messaging strategies | Used three messaging strategies: general information, general information with a social justice condition, and general information with an ethical oversight condition | Yes |
Feifer et al., 2021 [14] | More equitable information sessions, social media campaigns, and access to educational materials | Held COVID-19 vaccine information sessions facilitated by DEI representatives at all times of the day and night that were also open to employees’ family members, featured DEI representatives in their social media campaigns, and improved access to multilingual educational materials | Yes |
Gadarian et al., 2022 [15] | Online information from same-race/ethnicity experts | Exposed participants to information on the COVID-19 vaccine that was endorsed by same- or different-race/ethnicity experts vs. any vignette, with a control condition of not seeing a message about vaccination | No |
Peteet et al., 2022 [16] | Virtual webinar | Conducted a 1.5 h-long, dialogue-based webinar on the development of the COVID-19 vaccine and the psychology of fear | Yes |
Reddinger et al., 2022 [17] | Targeted messages | Showed to unvaccinated participants messaging about the health risks of COVID-19 to themselves and others and the benefits of getting vaccinated as well as endorsement from a celebrity (matched to each participant’s identities—Black, Latinx, conservative, religious, or a parent) | No |
Stoner et al., 2022 [18] | Tough Talks—COVID | Adapted the Tough Talks application to apply to COVID-19 vaccination decision-making within social contexts and inspire deeper thought about decisions by creating new choose-your-own adventure narratives | Not stated (only developed and pilot tested) |
Partnerships | |||
Abdul-Mutakabbir et al., 2022 [19] | Community–academic partnership | Developed a community–academic partnership model to increase the number of COVID-19 vaccines received | Yes |
AuYoung et al., 2023 [20] | California alliance against COVID-19 | Used 11 sites’ strategies, communication methods, languages, and trusted messengers | Yes |
Distribution | |||
Burkhardt et al., 2022 [21] | Offering vaccine to household members | Offered to administer a COVID-19 vaccine to pediatric patients and their household members during the pediatric patient’s appointment | Yes |
Chan et al., 2022 [22] | Rapid deployment of multiple tactics | Held virtual town halls, provided a confidential employee hotline, had department huddles, offered written educational material, and set up accessible vaccination stations | Yes |
Lane et al., 2023 [23] | Access to health care | Medicare patients received care in a high-touch capitated network, which included providers speaking to them about the benefits of getting a COVID-19 vaccine | Yes |
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Masterson, E.; Anderson, E.; Savoia, E. Interventions to Reduce COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy among Black and African American Individuals in the United States: A Systematic Literature Review. Vaccines 2024, 12, 959. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12090959
Masterson E, Anderson E, Savoia E. Interventions to Reduce COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy among Black and African American Individuals in the United States: A Systematic Literature Review. Vaccines. 2024; 12(9):959. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12090959
Chicago/Turabian StyleMasterson, Evelyn, Emma Anderson, and Elena Savoia. 2024. "Interventions to Reduce COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy among Black and African American Individuals in the United States: A Systematic Literature Review" Vaccines 12, no. 9: 959. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines12090959