The Indirect Effect of Future Anxiety on the Relationship between Self-Efficacy and Depression in a Convenience Sample of Adults: Revisiting Social Cognitive Theory
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Depression in Emerging Adults
1.2. Association between Future Anxiety and Depression
1.3. The Relationship between Depression, Future Anxiety, and Self-Efficacy
1.4. The Current Study
- There are age (emerging and middle adulthood) and gender (women, men) differences in symptoms of depression, future anxiety, and self-efficacy (H1).
- Self-efficacy is related negatively to symptoms of depression and future anxiety (H2).
- The higher the level of future anxiety, the higher the level of depression symptoms (H3).
- Low self-efficacy contributes to higher depression directly and indirectly through increased levels of future anxiety (H4).
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Procedure
2.2. Participant Characteristics
2.3. Measures
2.3.1. Depression
2.3.2. Future Anxiety
2.3.3. Self-Efficacy
2.3.4. Demographic Survey
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. A Preliminary Statistical Analysis
3.2. Gender and Age Differences in Depression Symptoms, Future Anxiety, and Self-Efficacy
3.3. Associations between Depression, Future Anxiety, and Self-Efficacy
3.4. Analysis of Mediation
4. Discussion
4.1. Age and Gender Differences in Depression, Future Anxiety, and Self-Efficacy
4.2. The Relationships between Depression, Future Anxiety, and Self-Efficacy
4.3. Mediating Effect of Future Anxiety on the Relationships between Self-Efficacy and Depression
4.4. Limitation of the Study
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Categories | Emerging (n = 157) | Middle-Aged (n = 126) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | ||
Age | M/SD | 23.15 | 2.25 | 43.52 | 8.95 |
Women | 115 | 40.5 | 73 | 25.7 | |
Gender | Men | 42 | 14.8 | 53 | 18.7 |
Other | 1 | 0.4 | 0 | 0.0 | |
Village | 23 | 8.1 | 21 | 7.4 | |
City up to 50,000 inhabitants | 16 | 5.6 | 27 | 9.5 | |
Place of residence | A city 50,000–250,000 inhabitants | 42 | 14.8 | 38 | 13.4 |
A city 250,000–500,000 inhabitants | 33 | 11.6 | 30 | 10.6 | |
City above 500,000 inhabitants | 44 | 15.5 | 10 | 3.5 | |
Primary | 3 | 1.1 | 0 | 0.0 | |
Vocational | 2 | 0.7 | 4 | 1.4 | |
Secondary | 71 | 25.0 | 48 | 16.9 | |
Education | Bachelor degree | 56 | 19.7 | 20 | 7.0 |
Master degree | 26 | 9.2 | 54 | 19.0 | |
Single | 63 | 22.2 | 25 | 8.8 | |
Relationship status | In a relationship | 95 | 33.5 | 101 | 35.6 |
Student | 40 | 14.1 | 1 | 0.4 | |
Professional status | Student employed | 78 | 27.5 | 7 | 2.5 |
Employed | 37 | 13.0 | 112 | 39.4 | |
Unemployed | 3 | 1.1 | 6 | 2.1 | |
Socioeconomic status | Insufficient | 21 | 7.4 | 12 | 4.2 |
Enough for basic needs | 75 | 26.4 | 48 | 16.9 | |
Meets more than basic needs | 62 | 21.8 | 66 | 23.2 | |
Depression (PHQ-9) | Women (M/SD) | 10.40 | 6.28 | 8.12 | 6.50 |
Men (M/SD) | 7.31 | 4.76 | 4.53 | 4.08 | |
Future anxiety (DFS) | Women (M/SD) | 19.40 | 7.77 | 16.22 | 8.56 |
Men (M/SD) | 14.64 | 7.60 | 12.34 | 8.85 | |
Self-efficacy (GSES) | Women (M/SD) | 27.16 | 6.13 | 28.86 | 5.50 |
Men (M/SD) | 32.50 | 4.84 | 33.00 | 4.63 |
Variable | Items | Range | M | SD | Skew. | Kurt. | ω | AVE | Pearson’s r Correlations | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SE | FA | DS | |||||||||
Self-efficacy (SE) | 10 | 11–40 | 29.48 | 6.02 | –0.46 | –0.20 | 0.92 | 0.64 | 0.73 | ||
Future anxiety (FA) | 5 | 0–30 | 16.56 | 8.55 | –0.25 | –1.00 | 0.91 | 0.71 | –0.58 *** | 0.82 | |
Depression symptoms (DS) | 9 | 0–27 | 8.26 | 6.14 | 0.83 | 0.01 | 0.88 | 0.55 | –0.55 *** | 0.65 *** | 0.68 |
Step | Predictor | b | SE | 95% CI | t | R | R ² | F | df 1 | df 2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LL | UL | ||||||||||
1 | Intercept | 4.71 | 0.67 | 3.40 | 6.03 | 7.06 *** | 0.35 | 0.12 | 19.18 *** | 2 | 281 |
Age (Emerging) | 2.48 | 0.70 | 1.10 | 3.85 | 3.55 *** | ||||||
Gender (Women) | 3.28 | 0.73 | 1.83 | 4.72 | 4.46 *** | ||||||
2 | Intercept | 21.67 | 1.89 | 17.94 | 25.40 | 11.44 *** | 0.58 | 0.33 | 46.30 *** | 3 | 280 |
Age (Emerging) | 1.79 | 0.62 | 0.58 | 3.00 | 2.92 ** | ||||||
Gender (Women) | 0.94 | 0.69 | –0.41 | 2.29 | 1.37 | ||||||
Self-efficacy | –0.51 | 0.05 | –0.62 | –0.40 | –9.41 *** | ||||||
3 | Intercept | 8.81 | 2.22 | 4.44 | 13.18 | 3.96 *** | 0.69 | 0.48 | 63.75 *** | 4 | 279 |
Age (Emerging) | 1.15 | 0.55 | 0.07 | 2.23 | 2.10 * | ||||||
Gender (Women) | 0.74 | 0.61 | –0.46 | 1.94 | 1.21 | ||||||
Self-efficacy | –0.25 | 0.06 | –0.36 | –0.14 | –4.38 *** | ||||||
Future anxiety | 0.34 | 0.04 | 0.26 | 0.42 | 8.83 *** |
95% CI | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predictor | Dependent | b | SE | LL | UL | β | z | p |
SE | FA | –0.62 | 0.04 | –0.70 | –0.53 | –0.67 | –14.60 | <0.001 |
FA | DS | 0.56 | 0.06 | 0.45 | 0.68 | 0.62 | 9.50 | <0.001 |
SE ⇒ FA ⇒ DS | –0.19 | 0.05 | –0.29 | –0.09 | –0.23 | –3.77 | <0.001 | |
Indirect effect | –0.35 | 0.04 | –0.43 | –0.26 | –0.41 | –8.05 | <0.001 |
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Szota, M.; Rogowska, A.M.; Kwaśnicka, A.; Chilicka-Hebel, K. The Indirect Effect of Future Anxiety on the Relationship between Self-Efficacy and Depression in a Convenience Sample of Adults: Revisiting Social Cognitive Theory. J. Clin. Med. 2024, 13, 4897. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13164897
Szota M, Rogowska AM, Kwaśnicka A, Chilicka-Hebel K. The Indirect Effect of Future Anxiety on the Relationship between Self-Efficacy and Depression in a Convenience Sample of Adults: Revisiting Social Cognitive Theory. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2024; 13(16):4897. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13164897
Chicago/Turabian StyleSzota, Marta, Aleksandra M. Rogowska, Aleksandra Kwaśnicka, and Karolina Chilicka-Hebel. 2024. "The Indirect Effect of Future Anxiety on the Relationship between Self-Efficacy and Depression in a Convenience Sample of Adults: Revisiting Social Cognitive Theory" Journal of Clinical Medicine 13, no. 16: 4897. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13164897