Delineating the Psychic Structure of Substance Use and Addictions, from Neurobiology to Clinical Implications: Ten Years Later
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Nosography: Critical Issues
2.1. Applying a Low-Inference Observation Level
2.2. Potential Clinical Applications
3. Discussion
3.1. Somatic Symptoms Dimension
3.2. Worthlessness/Being Trapped Dimension
3.3. Sensitivity/Psychoticism Dimension
3.4. Panic Anxiety Dimension
3.5. Violence/Suicide Dimension
3.6. Limitations
4. Conclusions
4.1. From the Research Viewpoint
4.2. From the Clinical Viewpoint
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Pani, P.P.; Maremmani, I.; Trogu, E.; Gessa, G.L.; Ruiz, P.; Akiskal, H.S. Delineating the psychic structure of substance abuse and addictions: Should anxiety, mood and impulse-control dysregulation be included? J. Affect. Disord. 2010, 122, 185–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Insel, T.; Cuthbert, B.; Garvey, M.; Heinssen, R.; Pine, D.S.; Quinn, K.; Sanislow, C.; Wang, P. Research domain criteria (RDoC): Toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 2010, 167, 748–751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Insel, T.R.; Cuthbert, B.N. Medicine. Brain disorders? Precisely. Science 2015, 348, 499–500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Eaton, N.R.; Rodriguez-Seijas, C.; Carragher, N.; Krueger, R.F. Transdiagnostic factors of psychopathology and substance use disorders: A review. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2015, 50, 171–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shadur, J.M.; Lejuez, C.W. Adolescent Substance Use and Comorbid Psychopathology: Emotion Regulation Deficits as a Transdiagnostic Risk Factor. Curr. Addict. Rep. 2015, 2, 354–363. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Brooks, S.J.; Lochner, C.; Shoptaw, S.; Stein, D.J. Using the research domain criteria (RDoC) to conceptualize impulsivity and compulsivity in relation to addiction. Prog. Brain Res. 2017, 235, 177–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fineberg, N.A.; Menchon, J.M.; Zohar, J.; Veltman, D.J. Compulsivity-A new trans-diagnostic research domain for the Roadmap for Mental Health Research in Europe (ROAMER) and Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiatives. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016, 26, 797–799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yip, S.W.; Potenza, M.N. Application of Research Domain Criteria to childhood and adolescent impulsive and addictive disorders: Implications for treatment. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2018, 64, 41–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hiser, J.; Koenigs, M. The Multifaceted Role of the Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex in Emotion, Decision Making, Social Cognition, and Psychopathology. Biol. Psychiatry 2018, 83, 638–647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carpenter, K.M.; Hittner, J.B. Dimensional characteristics of the SCL-90-R: Evaluation of gender differences in dually diagnosed inpatients. J. Clin. Psychol. 1995, 51, 383–390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zack, M.; Toneatto, T.; Streiner, D.L. The SCL-90 factor structure in comorbid substance abusers. J. Subst. Abuse 1998, 10, 85–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maremmani, I.; Pani, P.P.; Canoniero, S.; Pacini, M.; Perugi, G.; Rihmer, Z.; Akiskal, H.S. Is the bipolar spectrum the psychopathological substrate of suicidality in heroin addicts? Psychopathology 2007, 40, 269–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pacini, M.; Maremmani, I.; Vitali, M.; Romeo, M.; Santini, P.; Vermeil, V.; Ceccanti, M. Cocaine Abuse in 448 Alcoholics: Evidence for a Bipolar Connection. Addict. Disord. Their Treat. 2010, 9, 164–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maremmani, I.; Pani, P.P.; Pacini, M.; Bizzarri, J.V.; Trogu, E.; Maremmani, A.G.; Gerra, G.; Perugi, G.; Dell’osso, L. Subtyping patients with heroin addiction at treatment entry: Factor derived from the Self-Report Symptom Inventory (SCL-90). Ann. Gen. Psychiatry 2010, 9, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Castellanos-Ryan, N.; Brière, F.N.; O’leary-Barrett, M.; Banaschewski, T.; Bokde, A.; Bromberg, U.; Büchel, C.; Flor, H.; Frouin, V.; Gallinat, J.; et al. The structure of psychopathology in adolescence and its common personality and cognitive correlates. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2016, 125, 1039–1052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pani, P.P.; Trogu, E.; Vigna-Taglianti, F.; Mathis, F.; Diecidue, R.; Kirchmayer, U.; Amato, L.; Davoli, M.; Ghibaudi, J.; Camposeragna, A.; et al. Psychopathological symptoms of patients with heroin addiction entering opioid agonist or therapeutic community treatment. Ann. Gen. Psychiatry 2014, 13, 35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Maremmani, A.G.I.; Rovai, L.; Maremmani, I. Heroin addicts’ psychopathological subtypes. Correlations with the natural history of illness. Heroin Addict. Relat. Clin. Probl. 2012, 14, 11–22. [Google Scholar]
- Maremmani, A.G.I.; Lovrecic, M.; Lovrecic, B.; Maremmani, I. Ethnicity and specific psychopathology of addiction. Comparison between Slovenian and Italian Heroin Use Disorder patients. Heroin Addict. Relat. Clin. Probl. 2019, 21, 35–39. [Google Scholar]
- Carbone, M.G.; Tagliarini, C.; Ricci, M.; Lupi, A.M.; Sarandrea, L.; Ceban, A.; Casella, P.; Maremmani, I. Ethnicity and specific psychopathology of addiction. Comparison between migrant and Italian Heroin Use Disorder patients. Heroin Addict. Relat. Clin. Probl. 2019, 21, 61–66. [Google Scholar]
- Pani, P.P.; Maremmani, A.G.I.; Trogu, E.; Vigna-Taglianti, F.; Mathis, F.; Diecidue, R.; Kirchmayer, U.; Amato, L.; Davoli, M.; Ghibaudi, J.; et al. Psychopathological symptoms in detoxified and non-detoxified heroin-dependent patients entering residential treatment. Heroin Addict. Relat. Clin. Probl. 2015, 17, 17–24. [Google Scholar]
- Pani, P.P.; Maremmani, A.G.I.; Trogu, E.; Vigna-Taglianti, F.; Mathis, F.; Diecidue, R.; Kirchmayer, U.; Amato, L.; Davoli, M.; Ghibaudi, J.; et al. Psychic Structure of Opioid Addiction: Impact of Lifetime Psychiatric Problems on SCL-90-based Psychopathologic Dimensions in Heroin-dependent Patients. Addict. Disord. Their Treat. 2016, 15, 6–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maremmani, A.G.I.; Maiello, M.; Carbone, M.G.; Pallucchini, A.; Brizzi, F.; Belcari, I.; Conversano, C.; Perugi, G.; Maremmani, I. Towards a psychopathology specific to Substance Use Disorder: Should emotional responses to life events be included? Compr. Psychiatry 2018, 80, 132–139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pani, P.P.; Maremmani, A.G.; Trogu, E.; Vigna-Taglianti, F.; Mathis, F.; Diecidue, R.; Kirchmayer, U.; Amato, L.; Ghibaudi, J.; Camposeragna, A.; et al. Psychopathology of addiction: May a SCL-90-based five dimensions structure be applied irrespectively of the involved drug? Ann. Gen. Psychiatry 2016, 15, 13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Carbone, M.G.; Maiello, M.; Spera, V.; Manni, C.; Pallucchini, A.; Maremmani, A.G.I.; Maremmani, I. The SCL90-based psychopathological structure may be applied in Substance Use Disorder patients irrespectively of the involved drug also in heroin, alcohol and cocaine mono-drug users. Heroin Addict. Relat. Clin. Probl. 2018, 20, 29–34. [Google Scholar]
- Maremmani, I.; Iantomasi, C.; Pani, P.P.; Maremmani, A.G.I.; Mathis, F.; For the Voect Group. A prospective study of psychopathology stability and changes after 3 month drug-abstinence in Italian Substance Use Disorder patients during a residential treatment. Heroin Addict. Relat. Clin. Probl. 2020, 22, 35–43. [Google Scholar]
- Lamanna, F.; Maremmani, A.G.I.; Maremmani, I. Nearly thirty years of experience of real-world long-term treatment with Opioid Agonists. Heroin Addict. Relat. Clin. Probl. 2020, 22, 41–48. [Google Scholar]
- Della Rocca, F.; Maremmani, A.; Rovai, L.; Bacciardi, S.; Lamanna, F.; Maremmani, I. Further evidence of a specific psychopathology of Heroin Use Disorder. Relationships between psychopathological dimensions and addictive behaviors. Heroin Addict. Relat. Clin. Probl. 2017, 19, 13–20. [Google Scholar]
- Maremmani, A.G.I.; Cerniglia, L.; Cimino, S.; Bacciardi, S.; Rovai, L.; Rugani, F.; Massimetti, E.; Gazzarrini, D.; Pallucchini, A.; Pani, P.P.; et al. Towards a specific psychopathology of heroin addiction. Comparison between Heroin Use Disorder and Major Depression patients. Heroin Addict. Relat. Clin. Probl. 2015, 17, 9–16. [Google Scholar]
- Rugani, F.; Paganin, W.; Maremmani, A.G.I.; Perugi, G.; Maremmani, I. Towards a specific psychopathology of heroin addiction. Comparison between Heroin Use Disorder and Chronic Psychotic patients. Heroin Addict. Relat. Clin. Probl. 2019, 21, 53–59. [Google Scholar]
- Maremmani, A.G.I.; Gazzarrini, D.; Fiorin, A.; Cingano, V.; Bellio, G.; Perugi, G.; Maremmani, I. Psychopathology of addiction: Can the SCL90-based five-dimensional structure differentiate Heroin Use Disorder from a non-substance-related addictive disorder such as Gambling Disorder? Ann. Gen. Psychiatry 2018, 17, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Maremmani, A.G.I.; Cerniglia, L.; Cimino, S.; Maiello, M.; Della Rocca, F.; Maremmani, I. The psychopathology specific to Substance Use Disorder is able to discriminate between young people with and without Problematic Internet Use. Heroin. Addict. Relat. Clin. Probl. 2020, 22. Available online: http://www.heroinaddictionrelatedclinicalproblems.org/harcp-archives.php (accessed on 3 May 2020).
- Maremmani, A.G.I.; Cerniglia, L.; Cimino, S.; Bacciardi, S.; Rovai, L.; Pallucchini, A.; Spera, V.; Perugi, G.; Maremmani, I. Further Evidence of a Specific Psychopathology of Addiction. Differentiation from Other Psychiatric Psychopathological Dimensions (Such as Obesity). Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2017, 14, 943. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Maremmani, A.G.; Rovai, L.; Pani, P.P.; Pacini, M.; Lamanna, F.; Rugani, F.; Schiavi, E.; Dell’osso, L.; Maremmani, I. Do methadone and buprenorphine have the same impact on psychopathological symptoms of heroin addicts? Ann. Gen. Psychiatry 2011, 10, 17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Pani, P.P.; Maremmani, I.; Pacini, M.; Lamanna, F.; Maremmani, A.G.I.; Dell’ Osso, L. Effect of psychiatric severity on the outcome of methadone maintenance treatment. Eur. Addict. Res. 2011, 17, 80–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kotov, R.; Krueger, R.F.; Watson, D.; Achenbach, T.M.; Althoff, R.R.; Bagby, R.M.; Brown, T.A.; Carpenter, W.T.; Caspi, A.; Clark, L.A.; et al. The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): A dimensional alternative to traditional nosologies. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2017, 126, 454–477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Knapp, C.M.; Ciraulo, A.M.; Jaffe, J.H. Opiates: Clinical Aspects. In Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook; Lowinson, J.H., Ruiz, P., Millman, R.B., Langrod, J.G., Eds.; Williams & Wilkins: Phyladelphia, PA, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Andrade, L.H.; Benseñor, I.M.; Viana, M.C.; Andreoni, S.; Wang, Y.P. Clustering of psychiatric and somatic illnesses in the general population: Multimorbidity and socioeconomic correlates. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 2010, 43, 483–491. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- De Hert, M.; Van Winkel, R.; Silic, A.; Van Eyck, D.; Peuskens, J. Physical health management in psychiatric settings. Eur. Psychiatry 2010, 25, S22–S28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fleischhacker, W.W.; Cetkovich-Bakmas, M.; De Hert, M.; Hennekens, C.H.; Lambert, M.; Leucht, S.; Maj, M.; Mcintyre, R.S.; Naber, D.; Newcomer, J.W.; et al. Comorbid somatic illnesses in patients with severe mental disorders: Clinical, policy, and research challenges. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2008, 69, 514–519. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Hert, M.; Cohen, D.; Bobes, J.; Cetkovich-Bakmas, M.; Leucht, S.; Ndetei, D.M.; Newcomer, J.W.; Uwakwe, R.; Asai, I.; Möller, H.J.; et al. Physical illness in patients with severe mental disorders. II. Barriers to care, monitoring and treatment guidelines, plus recommendations at the system and individual level. World Psychiatry 2011, 10, 138–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- De Hert, M.; Correll, C.U.; Bobes, J.; Cetkovich-Bakmas, M.; Cohen, D.; Asai, I.; Detraux, J.; Gautam, S.; Möller, H.J.; Ndetei, D.M.; et al. Physical illness in patients with severe mental disorders. I. Prevalence, impact of medications and disparities in health care. World Psychiatry 2011, 10, 52–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wahlbeck, K.; Westman, J.; Nordentoft, M.; Gissler, M.; Laursen, T.M. Outcomes of Nordic mental health systems: Life expectancy of patients with mental disorders. Br. J. Psychiatry 2011, 199, 453–458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Šprah, L.; Dernovšek, M.Z.; Wahlbeck, K.; Haaramo, P. Psychiatric readmissions and their association with physical comorbidity: A systematic literature review. BMC Psychiatry 2017, 17, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cacciola, J.S.; Alterman, A.I.; Rutherford, M.J.; Mckay, J.R.; Mulvaney, F.D. The relationship of psychiatric comorbidity to treatment outcomes in methadone maintained patients. Drug Alcohol. Depend. 2001, 61, 271–280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Curran, G.M.; Sullivan, G.; Williams, K.; Han, X.; Collins, K.; Keys, J.; Kotrla, K.J. Emergency department use of persons with comorbid psychiatric and substance abuse disorders. Ann. Emerg. Med. 2003, 41, 659–667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rosenberg, S.D.; Drake, R.E.; Brunette, M.F.; Wolford, G.L.; Marsh, B.J. Hepatitis C virus and HIV co-infection in people with severe mental illness and substance use disorders. AIDS 2005, 19, S26–S33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brook, D.W.; Brook, J.S.; Zhang, C.; Cohen, P.; Whiteman, M. Drug use and the risk of major depressive disorder, alcohol dependence, and substance use disorders. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2002, 59, 1039–1044. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Blum, K.; Braverman, E.R.; Holder, J.M.; Lubar, J.F.; Monastra, V.J.; Miller, D.; Lubar, J.O.; Chen, T.J.; Comings, D.E. Reward deficiency syndrome: A biogenetic model for the diagnosis and treatment of impulsive, addictive, and compulsive behaviors. J. Psychoact. Drugs 2000, 32, 1–112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schuckit, M.A.; Tipp, J.E.; Bucholz, K.K.; Nurnberger, J.I.; Hesselbrock, V.M.; Crowe, R.R.; Kramer, J. The life-time rates of three major mood disorders and four major anxiety disorders in alcoholics and controls. Addiction 1997, 92, 1289–1304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gerra, G.; Angioni, L.; Zaimovic, A.; Moi, G.; Bussandri, M.; Bertacca, S.; Santoro, G.; Gardini, S.; Caccavari, R.; Nicoli, M.A. Substance use among high-school students: Relationships with temperament, personality traits, and parental care perception. Subst. Use Misuse 2004, 39, 345–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Camacho, A.; Akiskal, H.S. Proposal for a bipolar-stimulant spectrum: Temperament, diagnostic validation and therapeutic outcomes with mood stabilizers. J. Affect. Disord. 2005, 85, 217–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Conner, K.R.; Sorensen, S.; Leonard, K.E. Initial depression and subsequent drinking during alcoholism treatment. J. Stud. Alcohol. 2005, 66, 401–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Volman, S.F.; Lammel, S.; Margolis, E.B.; Kim, Y.; Richard, J.M.; Roitman, M.F.; Lobo, M.K. New insights into the specificity and plasticity of reward and aversion encoding in the mesolimbic system. J. Neurosci. 2013, 33, 17569–17576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Post, R.M.; Kalivas, P. Bipolar disorder and substance misuse: Pathological and therapeutic implications of their comorbidity and cross-sensitisation. Br. J. Psychiatry 2013, 202, 172–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Hunt, G.E.; Malhi, G.S.; Lai, H.M.X.; Cleary, M. Prevalence of comorbid substance use in major depressive disorder in community and clinical settings, 1990-2019: Systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Affect. Disord. 2020, 266, 288–304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boden, J.M.; Fergusson, D.M. Alcohol and depression. Addiction 2011, 106, 906–914. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Foulds, J.A.; Adamson, S.J.; Boden, J.M.; Williman, J.A.; Mulder, R.T. Depression in patients with alcohol use disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis of outcomes for independent and substance-induced disorders. J. Affect. Disord. 2015, 185, 47–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gómez-Coronado, N.; Sethi, R.; Bortolasci, C.C.; Arancini, L.; Berk, M.; Dodd, S. A review of the neurobiological underpinning of comorbid substance use and mood disorders. J. Affect. Disord. 2018, 241, 388–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Camardese, G.; Di Giuda, D.; Di Nicola, M.; Cocciolillo, F.; Giordano, A.; Janiri, L.; Guglielmo, R. Imaging studies on dopamine transporter and depression: A review of literature and suggestions for future research. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2014, 51, 7–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hägele, C.; Schlagenhauf, F.; Rapp, M.; Sterzer, P.; Beck, A.; Bermpohl, F.; Stoy, M.; Ströhle, A.; Wittchen, H.U.; Dolan, R.J.; et al. Dimensional psychiatry: Reward dysfunction and depressive mood across psychiatric disorders. Psychopharmacology 2015, 232, 331–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Berk, M.; Post, R.; Ratheesh, A.; Gliddon, E.; Singh, A.; Vieta, E.; Carvalho, A.F.; Ashton, M.M.; Berk, L.; Cotton, S.M.; et al. Staging in bipolar disorder: From theoretical framework to clinical utility. World Psychiatry 2017, 16, 236–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Belujon, P.; Grace, A.A. Dopamine System Dysregulation in Major Depressive Disorders. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2017, 20, 1036–1046. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Butelman, E.R.; Yuferov, V.; Kreek, M.J. κ-opioid receptor/dynorphin system: Genetic and pharmacotherapeutic implications for addiction. Trends Neurosci. 2012, 35, 587–596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Carlezon, W.A.; Konradi, C. Understanding the neurobiological consequences of early exposure to psychotropic drugs: Linking behavior with molecules. Neuropharmacology 2004, 47, 47–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kalivas, P.W.; Volkow, N.D. The neural basis of addiction: A pathology of motivation and choice. Am. J. Psychiatry 2005, 162, 1403–1413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- George, O.; Le Moal, M.; Koob, G.F. Allostasis and addiction: Role of the dopamine and corticotropin-releasing factor systems. Physiol. Behav. 2012, 106, 58–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- George, O.; Koob, G.F.; Vendruscolo, L.F. Negative reinforcement via motivational withdrawal is the driving force behind the transition to addiction. Psychopharmacology 2014, 231, 3911–3917. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Koob, G.F. The role of CRF and CRF-related peptides in the dark side of addiction. Brain Res. 2010, 1314, 3–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Koob, G.F.; Volkow, N.D. Neurocircuitry of addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010, 35, 217–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Koob, G.F.; Volkow, N.D. Neurobiology of addiction: A neurocircuitry analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 2016, 3, 760–773. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mcewen, B.S.; Gianaros, P.J. Stress- and allostasis-induced brain plasticity. Annu. Rev. Med. 2011, 62, 431–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nemeroff, C.B. New vistas in neuropeptide research in neuropsychiatry: Focus on corticotropin-releasing factor. Neuropsychopharmacology 1992, 6, 69–75. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Stam, R.; Bruijnzeel, A.W.; Wiegant, V.M. Long-lasting stress sensitisation. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2000, 405, 217–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sarnyai, Z.; Shaham, Y.; Heinrichs, S.C. The role of corticotropin-releasing factor in drug addiction. Pharmacol. Rev. 2001, 53, 209–243. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Weiss, F.; Ciccocioppo, R.; Parsons, L.H.; Katner, S.; Liu, X.; Zorrilla, E.P.; Valdez, G.R.; Ben-Shahar, O.; Angeletti, S.; Richter, R.R. Compulsive drug-seeking behavior and relapse. Neuroadaptation, stress, and conditioning factors. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2001, 937, 1–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brady, K.T.; Sinha, R. Co-occurring mental and substance use disorders: The neurobiological effects of chronic stress. Am. J. Psychiatry 2005, 162, 1483–1493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Griffith, J.D. Experimental psychosis induced by the administration of d-amphetamine. In Amphetamine and Related Compounds; Costa, E., Garattini, S., Eds.; Raven Press: New York, NY, USA, 1970; pp. 876–904. [Google Scholar]
- Janowsky, D.S.; Risch, C. Amphetamine psychosis and psychotic symptoms. Psychopharmacology 1979, 65, 73–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bell, D.S. The experimental reproduction of amphetamine psychosis. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1973, 29, 35–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Angrist, B.M.; Gershon, S. The phenomenology of experimentally induced amphetamine psychosis—Preliminary observations. Biol. Psychiatry 1970, 2, 95–107. [Google Scholar]
- Kalayasiri, R.; Sughondhabirom, A.; Gueorguieva, R.; Coric, V.; Lynch, W.J.; Morgan, P.T.; Cubells, J.F.; Malison, R.T. Self-reported paranoia during laboratory “binge” cocaine self-administration in humans. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2006, 83, 249–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thomas, H. A community survey of adverse effects of cannabis use. Drug Alcohol. Depend. 1996, 42, 201–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chaudry, H.R.; Moss, H.B.; Bashir, A.; Suliman, T. Cannabis psychosis following bhang ingestion. Br. J. Addict. 1991, 86, 1075–1081. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Solomons, K.; Neppe, V.M.; Kuyl, J.M. Toxic cannabis psychosis is a valid entity. S. Afr. Med. J. 1990, 78, 476–481. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Wylie, A.S.; Scott, R.T.; Burnett, S.J. Psychosis due to “skunk”. BMJ 1995, 311, 125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hall, W.; Degenhardt, L.; Teesson, M. Cannabis use and psychotic disorders: An update. Drug Alcohol. Rev. 2004, 23, 433–443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Tien, A.Y.; Anthony, J.C. Epidemiological analysis of alcohol and drug use as risk factors for psychotic experiences. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 1990, 178, 473–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tsuang, J.W.; Lohr, J.B. Effects of alcohol on symptoms in alcoholic and nonalcoholic patients with schizophrenia. Hosp. Community Psychiatry 1994, 45, 1229–1230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Levinson, I.; Galynker, I.I.; Rosenthal, R.N. Methadone withdrawal psychosis. J. Clin. Psychiatry 1995, 56, 73–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grant, S.; London, E.D.; Newlin, D.B.; Villemagne, V.L.; Liu, X.; Contoreggi, C.; Phillips, R.L.; Kimes, A.S.; Margolin, A. Activation of memory circuits during cue-elicited cocaine craving. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1996, 93, 12040–12045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Maas, L.C.; Lukas, S.E.; Kaufman, M.J.; Weiss, R.D.; Daniels, S.L.; Rogers, V.W.; Kukes, T.J.; Renshaw, P.F. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of human brain activation during cue-induced cocaine craving. Am. J. Psychiatry 1998, 155, 124–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, M.J.; Thirthalli, J.; Abdallah, A.B.; Murray, R.M.; Cottler, L.B. Prevalence of psychotic symptoms in substance users: A comparison across substances. Compr. Psychiatry 2009, 50, 245–250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jordaan, G.P.; Nel, D.G.; Hewlett, R.H.; Emsley, R. Alcohol-induced psychotic disorder: A comparative study on the clinical characteristics of patients with alcohol dependence and schizophrenia. J. Stud. Alcohol. Drugs 2009, 70, 870–876. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Greenberg, D.M.; Lee, J.W. Psychotic manifestations of alcoholism. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 2001, 3, 314–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Perälä, J.; Kuoppasalmi, K.; Pirkola, S.; Härkänen, T.; Saarni, S.; Tuulio-Henriksson, A.; Viertiö, S.; Latvala, A.; Koskinen, S.; Lönnqvist, J.; et al. Alcohol-induced psychotic disorder and delirium in the general population. Br. J. Psychiatry 2010, 197, 200–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Jordaan, G.P.; Emsley, R. Alcohol-induced psychotic disorder: A review. Metab. Brain Dis. 2014, 29, 231–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kapur, S. Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: A framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 2003, 160, 13–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nielsen, D.A.; Kreek, M.J. Common and specific liability to addiction: Approaches to association studies of opioid addiction. Drug Alcohol. Depend. 2012, 123, S33–S41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pfeiffer, A.; Brantl, V.; Herz, A.; Emrich, H.M. Psychotomimesis mediated by kappa opiate receptors. Science 1986, 233, 774–776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Koob, G.F.; Le Moal, M. Drug abuse: Hedonic homeostatic dysregulation. Science 1997, 278, 52–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Caine, S.B.; Thomsen, M.; Gabriel, K.I.; Berkowitz, J.S.; Gold, L.H.; Koob, G.F.; Tonegawa, S.; Zhang, J.; Xu, M. Lack of self-administration of cocaine in dopamine D1 receptor knock-out mice. J. Neurosci. 2007, 27, 13140–13150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Li, S.X.; Li, J.; Epstein, D.H.; Zhang, X.Y.; Kosten, T.R.; Lu, L. Serum cortisol secretion during heroin abstinence is elevated only nocturnally. Am. J. Drug Alcohol. Abuse. 2008, 34, 321–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Li, S.X.; Shi, J.; Epstein, D.H.; Wang, X.; Zhang, X.L.; Bao, Y.P.; Zhang, D.; Zhang, X.Y.; Kosten, T.R.; Lu, L. Circadian alteration in neurobiology during 30 days of abstinence in heroin users. Biol. Psychiatry 2009, 65, 905–912. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bacciardi, S.; Maremmani, A.G.I.; Rovai, L.; Rugani, F.; Pani, P.P.; Pacini, M.; Dell’osso, L.; Akiskal, H.S.; Maremmani, I. Drug (heroin) addiction, bipolar spectrum and impulse control disorders. Heroin Addict. Relat. Clin. Probl. 2013, 15, 29–36. [Google Scholar]
- Kathleen Holmes, M.; Bearden, C.E.; Barguil, M.; Fonseca, M.; Serap Monkul, E.; Nery, F.G.; Soares, J.C.; Mintz, J.; Glahn, D.C. Conceptualizing impulsivity and risk taking in bipolar disorder: Importance of history of alcohol abuse. Bipolar. Disord. 2009, 11, 33–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Maremmani, I.; Pacini, M.; Perugi, G. Addictive disorders, bipolar spectrum and the impulsive link: The psychopathology of a self-regenerating pathway. Heroin Addict. Relat. Clin. Probl. 2005, 7, 33–46. [Google Scholar]
- Madden, G.J.; Petry, N.M.; Badger, G.J.; Bickel, W.K. Impulsive and self-control choices in opioid-dependent patients and non-drug-using control participants: Drug and monetary rewards. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1997, 5, 256–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Petry, N.M. Discounting of money, health, and freedom in substance abusers and controls. Drug Alcohol. Depend. 2003, 71, 133–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kirisci, L.; Tarter, R.E.; Reynolds, M.; Vanyukov, M. Individual differences in childhood neurobehavior disinhibition predict decision to desist substance use during adolescence and substance use disorder in young adulthood: A prospective study. Addict. Behav. 2006, 31, 686–696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nigg, J.T.; Wong, M.M.; Martel, M.M.; Jester, J.M.; Puttler, L.I.; Glass, J.M.; Adams, K.M.; Fitzgerald, H.E.; Zucker, R.A. Poor response inhibition as a predictor of problem drinking and illicit drug use in adolescents at risk for alcoholism and other substance use disorders. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 2006, 45, 468–475. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Page, C.E.; Coutellier, L. Prefrontal excitatory/inhibitory balance in stress and emotional disorders: Evidence for over-inhibition. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2019, 105, 39–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Volkow, N.D.; Fowler, J.S.; Wolf, A.P.; Hitzemann, R.; Dewey, S.; Bendriem, B.; Alpert, R.; Hoff, A. Changes in brain glucose metabolism in cocaine dependence and withdrawal. Am. J. Psychiatry 1991, 148, 621–626. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Volkow, N.D.; Hitzemann, R.; Wang, G.J.; Fowler, J.S.; Wolf, A.P.; Dewey, S.L.; Handlesman, L. Long-term frontal brain metabolic changes in cocaine abusers. Synapse 1992, 11, 184–190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Volkow, N.D.; Hitzemann, R.; Wang, G.J.; Fowler, J.S.; Burr, G.; Pascani, K.; Dewey, S.L.; Wolf, A.P. Decreased brain metabolism in neurologically intact healthy alcoholics. Am. J. Psychiatry 1992, 149, 1016–1022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Volkow, N.D.; Fowler, J.S.; Wang, G.J.; Goldstein, R.Z. Role of dopamine, the frontal cortex and memory circuits in drug addiction: Insight from imaging studies. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 2002, 78, 610–624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Botelho, M.F.; Relvas, J.S.; Abrantes, M.; Cunha, M.J.; Marques, T.R.; Rovira, E.; Fontes Ribeiro, C.A.; Macedo, T. Brain blood flow SPET imaging in heroin abusers. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2006, 1074, 466–477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Qiu, Y.; Lv, X.; Su, H.; Jiang, G.; Tian, J.; Zhuo, F.; Han, L.; Zhang, X. Reduced regional homogeneity in bilateral frontostriatal system relates to higher impulsivity behavior in codeine-containing cough syrups dependent individuals. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e78738. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kaufman, J.N.; Ross, T.J.; Stein, E.A.; Garavan, H. Cingulate hypoactivity in cocaine users during a GO-NOGO task as revealed by event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. J. Neurosci. 2003, 23, 7839–7843. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fillmore, M.T.; Rush, C.R. Impaired inhibitory control of behavior in chronic cocaine users. Drug Alcohol. Depend. 2002, 66, 265–273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bechara, A. Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist drugs: A neurocognitive perspective. Nat. Neurosci. 2005, 8, 1458–1463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dell’Osso, L.; Rugani, F.; Maremmani, A.G.; Bertoni, S.; Pani, P.P.; Maremmani, I. Towards a unitary perspective between post-traumatic stress disorder and substance use disorder. Heroin use disorder as case study. Compr. Psychiatry 2014, 55, 1244–1251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Steps | Psychopathological Dimensions | NDTX Patients | DTX Patients | F | p | DF * |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 641 | N = 347 | |||||
1 | Somatic Symptoms | 1.12 ± 0.7 | 0.77 ± 0.7 | 34.14 | 0.000 | 1.34 |
Worthlessness/Being Trapped | 1.25 ± 0.8 | 0.95 ± 0.7 | 53.25 | 0.000 | ||
Sensitivity/Psychoticism | 0.83 ± 0.7 | 0.68 ± 0.6 | 11.41 | 0.001 | ||
Panic Anxiety | 0.48 ± 0.6 | 0.33 ± 0.5 | 13.91 | 0.000 | ||
Violence/Suicide | 0.89 ± 0.7 | 0.61 ± 0.6 | 37.30 | 0.000 | ||
Centroids | 0.17 | −0.22 |
Steps | Psychopathological Dimensions | NPC-HA Patients | PC-HA Patients | F | p | DF * |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 886 | N = 309 | |||||
1 | Panic Anxiety | 0.35 ± 0.5 | 0.64 ± 0.7 | 51.65 | <0.001 | 0.71 |
2 | Somatic Symptoms | 0.92 ± 0.7 | 1.25 ± 0.8 | 43.28 | <0.001 | 0.37 |
Worthlessness/Being Trapped | 1.05 ± 0.7 | 1.37 ± 0.8 | 36.78 | <0.001 | ||
Sensitivity-Psychoticism | 0.70 ± 0.6 | 0.97 ± 0.7 | 38.13 | <0.001 | ||
Violence-Suicide | 0.71 ± 0.6 | 0.99 ± 0.8 | 37.21 | 0.001 | ||
Centroids | −0.12 | 0.37 |
Statistically Significant Associations | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SCL-90 Dimensions | Age | Setting AOT vs. TC | Active Use | Craving | Lifetime Psychiatric Problems | Kind of Substance | Instability Over Time | |
Alcohol | Cocaine | |||||||
Worthlessness/Being Trapped | • | • | ||||||
Somatic Symptoms | • | • | • | • | • | • | ||
Sensitivity/Psychoticism | • | |||||||
Panic Anxiety | • | • | ||||||
Violence/Suicide | • | • |
© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Pani, P.P.; Maremmani, A.G.I.; Pacini, M.; Trogu, E.; Gessa, G.L.; Ruiz, P.; Maremmani, I. Delineating the Psychic Structure of Substance Use and Addictions, from Neurobiology to Clinical Implications: Ten Years Later. J. Clin. Med. 2020, 9, 1913. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9061913
Pani PP, Maremmani AGI, Pacini M, Trogu E, Gessa GL, Ruiz P, Maremmani I. Delineating the Psychic Structure of Substance Use and Addictions, from Neurobiology to Clinical Implications: Ten Years Later. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2020; 9(6):1913. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9061913
Chicago/Turabian StylePani, Pier Paolo, Angelo G. I. Maremmani, Matteo Pacini, Emanuela Trogu, Gian Luigi Gessa, Pedro Ruiz, and Icro Maremmani. 2020. "Delineating the Psychic Structure of Substance Use and Addictions, from Neurobiology to Clinical Implications: Ten Years Later" Journal of Clinical Medicine 9, no. 6: 1913. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9061913