Changes in Spatial Distribution of Arable Land, Crop Production and Yield of Selected Crops in the EU Countries after 2004

Abstract

Agriculture is not a major economic sector in EU member states in terms of economy, however, crop production in particular is necessary for the nutrition of the population, and it is also crucial for its non-agricultural functions. The aim of this paper was to analyse the differentiation in the spatial distribution of arable land, and the development of production and yield per hectare of selected crops—cereals, oilseeds and potatoes in the EU countries as these are the main crops in the EU. The analysis of the crop production development based on the comparison of the EU member states for the period from 2004 to 2019 through the index of change was performed. The results show no clear changes in the crop production across the EU member states and the monitored 5 to 6-year periods; however, dynamics in the “new” member states entering the EU after 2004 are higher. Above all, significant regional geographical differences between individual EU states were found, which mainly reflect different natural conditions and prerequisites for agriculture, as well as differences in the historical and social development of individual countries.

1. Introduction

In the European Union (EU) countries, agriculture is not a major economic sector in terms of employment and share of gross domestic product (GDP). It has a low share of agricultural employment (1.8%) and also a low share of GDP (1.6%, 2019), compared to other less developed countries in the world [1]. EU countries are characterized by higher employment of the population mainly in the tertiary and quaternary sectors. Nevertheless, it is not possible to ignore the considerable importance of agriculture in its non-agricultural aspects, such as ecology, landscape design and rural settlement. Despite this, the EU countries are the world’s leading producers in crop and livestock production. The volume of agricultural production in Europe is dominated by crop production (78.4%) over livestock production (21.6%), as in several regions of the world. This is caused, for example, by higher demand for crop production as well as higher costs associated with livestock production. Crop production accounts for 53.9% and livestock production only for 46.1% of the total gross agricultural output [1]. In terms of European regions, the most favourable natural conditions for crop production are found in the countries of southern Europe (more than 60% of crop production). The lowest share is in northern European countries (around 30%) because they have less favourable soil and climate conditions for crop production. Roughly 50% of the share concerns the countries of the other regions of Europe. The intensity of crop production depends to a large extent on natural conditions and therefore the countries of southern, south-eastern and central Europe such as Bulgaria (76.1%), Greece (74.9%), Romania (71.9%), Spain (71.3%), Slovakia (66.6%), Hungary (64.5%), France (63.7%) or Italy (62.9%) predominate in crop production [1].

The Common Agricultural Policy of the EU has a very significant impact on the current form and intensity of crop production in EU countries. Therefore, the aim of this paper was to analyse the differentiation in the spatial distribution of arable land and the development of production and yield per hectare of selected crops (cereals, oilseeds and potatoes) in the EU countries in the period from 2004 to 2019.

Several states of Europe joined the EU in 2004 and adopted the Common Agricultural Policy of the EU; therefore, we focused on the initial year of the research in 2004. We selected crops with a significant share of the arable land of each state and the EU supports their cultivation. On the other side, potatoes are a crop without sufficient EU support; therefore, their production is decreasing in most countries. We were interested in the results in the production and yield per hectare of the monitored crops achieved by the new EU countries that joined the EU after 2004 compared to the old EU member states. We pointed out the regional differentiations within the EU countries.

Theoretical Background

Crop production is a branch of agriculture in which crops are grown on and off the land, i.e., they are grown in artificial environments to serve either directly or indirectly as food, feed or raw materials of plant origin. The growing population of the Earth forces an expansion of the fertile land devoted to crop production and increase in crop yields. The applicability and use of plant products as food, feed and raw materials also improves and is spread to new sectors. Crop production depends on a combination of two essential components of a single whole: the crop and the environment. Only a productive crop in a suitable environment provides full benefit. Therefore, targeted crop production must be aimed at intensifying the function of this unit. The main task of crop production in the future remains the provision of food for all mankind. Ensuring sufficient food to feed a rapidly growing population is a very difficult task, especially as a large part of humanity is still suffering from a certain lack of food and the difficult political and economic situation will require a major re-evaluation of some existing approaches.

In most EU countries except for Austria and Poland, the structure of agricultural production has been dominated by crop production over livestock. Commodity production within the different groupings of EU countries (old and the new member states—i.e., states that accessed the EU before 2004 or in 2004 and later) showed increasing changes in most crop commodities, with the highest growth dynamics observed in the newly acceded EU countries after 2004 [2]. Following the decline in livestock production in these countries, which was connected with a decline in several livestock species (mainly pigs and cattle), crop production gradually began to dominate over livestock production in the countries of central and south-eastern Europe. A number of countries have shifted their crop production towards crops with increased market demand. Such crops are mainly oilseeds and cereals. The growing of other crops, particularly potatoes and sugar beet, has a declining tendency. This one-sided focus of crop production on large-scale, low-value-added crops has a negative impact on the agricultural landscape. There is relatively small crop diversification in these countries. Higher crop diversity in these countries is found only in regions with favourable natural conditions, which are characterized by higher production and higher hectare yields [3]. The importance of cereal cultivation in EU countries and regional differentiation in cereal production is highlighted in the paper prepared by Nowak (2020) [4]. According to the author, due to the growing demand for cereals and their high production potential, EU member states are able to compete in the global market. According to Čechura et al. [5], a comparative analysis of the EU member states shows the high technical efficiency of cereal producers. The results show no significant differences in technical efficiency among EU countries, although they show considerable variation in production technologies and determinants of technical efficiency. Another study by Simionescu et al. [6] focused on climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions, which directly impact agriculture, and cereal production. The results indicated a positive impact of climate changes and fertilizer consumption on cereal production in EU countries.

The analysis of oilseed production in EU countries was addressed in the study by Popescu et al. [7]. It mainly analysed the development of production and hectare yields of rapeseed, sunflower and soybean for the period 2008 to 2018. It was found that 58% of the total oilseed area is occupied by rapeseed, 33% by sunflower and 8% by soybean. The total production of oilseeds reached 35 million tons in 2018, which was 30% more than in 2008. The production of legumes in Europe and America for period 1961–2013 was covered in the study by Cernay et al. [8]. In particular, the study found that the variability of hectare yields is greater in Europe than in America. It also highlights the relatively high importance of legumes in the formation and protection of the environment.

The agricultural sector of several European states has undergone significant structural changes over the last 30 years. In the Czech Republic, not only have changes occurred in the structure of crop production but there has also been a decline in the area under cultivation and the production of several crops [9,10]. According to Kroupová and Trnková [11], objective factors such as the size of the agricultural entity, a given hectare crop yield, the number of workers and natural conditions have a significant impact on the differentiation of the production capacity of farmers in the Czech Republic engaged in crop production. Interesting results concerning the impact of the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) on crop production are reported in the work of Kotyza and Slaboch [12]. They analysed the degree of self-sufficiency of the Czech Republic and Poland in selected commodities—cereals, oilseeds, maize, and potatoes. For a number of these commodities, the change in the self-sufficiency rate is stable or increasing. However, the Czech Republic is losing self-sufficiency in potato production, which has led to a decline in the area under cultivation. Slovakia is also one of the countries that are not self-sufficient in basic commodities of crop production, especially potatoes or vegetables. According to Greslová et al. [13], in the Czech Republic and Poland, as a result of the countries’ accession to the EU in 2004, the area of agricultural land decreased by about 20% and crop production was concentrated in more fertile areas, while the abandonment of agricultural land occurred mainly in less favourable areas. The impact of the EU CAP on Bulgarian agriculture has been discussed by Todorova [14]. According to the author, Bulgaria’s accession to the EU had a significant impact on farmers’ incomes, with an increase in income for farmers involved in cereal production, but a decrease in income of others who focused on growing vegetables, fruit and vines.

The paper prepared by Jeanneret et al. [15] focuses on a way how the increase in food production in Europe could dramatically affect farmland biodiversity. In particular, conversion of semi-natural habitats such as field margins, fallow land, pastures, and forests to farmland could increase agricultural production and help meet the growing global demand for food. However, it is not known to what extent such habitat loss would affect biodiversity and wildlife species.

Fundamental changes in the hectare yield variable for wheat in EU member states have been addressed, for example, by Kobus [16]. In his paper, he processed data mainly from Eurostat and the FAO organization for the period 1961 to 2008. According to Voicilas [17], German, French and British farmers achieve average wheat yields per hectare at least twice as high as Romanian ones. The differences in per hectare yields between Romania and the largest EU-growing countries have narrowed in recent years. At the beginning of the 21st century, in some growing years, average wheat yields per hectare in Germany or France were more than three times those in Romania. Hýblová and Skalický [18] investigated the correlation between hectare yields of wheat, return on sales and farm size in EU member states. The research results showed that return on sales decreases with farm size, while wheat yields per hectare increase.

The effect of silicon fertilization on the quantity and quality of production, in selected countries in Europe, was addressed by the Polish expert Artyszak [19]. This paper presents a research review of the effect of silicon fertilization on the quantity and quality of hectare yield over the last 15 years. The study focuses on crop species grown in Europe: cereals, soybeans, oilseed rape, sugar beet, potatoes, berries, and vegetables. Based on the results of the studies so far, it can be concluded that foliar nutrition should be introduced into production as a standard treatment in crop management for many agricultural plant species. It can help farmers increase crop yields and is also very important and safe for the environment, which is particularly relevant in Europe.

Among the series of Eurostat agricultural statistics on the survey and the structure of agricultural data, the study on ware potato production in Europe—transnational gross margin analysis [20] is particularly noteworthy. This document examines different sowing practices, cost structures and gross margins for conventional ware potatoes production in six different regions within the EU. The results of this study then show that potato cultivation practices vary considerably between different EU countries with significant differences in yields and costs. An analysis of changes in the potato market in Poland was carried out by Kowalska and Curkowa [21]. For the period from 2001 to 2019, it was found that the area under potato cultivation in Poland gradually declined. According to the authors Pedersen et al. [20], the production of table potatoes was not regulated by any production subsidies or area subsidies in the previous agricultural market regimes in the EU. In this context, the opening of the common market to the new member states that joined the EU after 2004 is taking place under the same conditions. Over the last 60 years, Europe has seen a decline in potato production of more than 50%. This decline has been caused by a significant drop in demand for potatoes over the last decades. This is mainly due to the declining use of potatoes as livestock feed in eastern Europe, where there has been a gradual substitution of potatoes by cereals, as well as a change in the dietary habits of the population towards a wider variety of foods and a change towards semi-processed foods [22,23].

2. Materials and Methods

For the overall analysis of the results, data from available statistical sources on crop production of the current EU countries were processed. Faostat database and data for the years 2004–2019 were used for the comparison of crop production data in EU countries. The year 2004 is chosen as the starting year because it was the year of the last “bulk” accession of the states to the EU. The year 2019 is chosen as the year for which data for all EU states are available.

Attention was paid mainly to the comparison of the development through the index of change for the 16 years long period (I = 2019/2004*100) of the following indicators—the percentage of ploughing (share of arable land from agricultural land), production (based on dry matter) and hectare yield of selected crops—cereals, oilseeds and potatoes. The paper concludes by presenting indices of change in the production of selected crops for the 5-year periods 2008/2004, 2013/2009 and the 6-year period 2019/2014 to capture whether changes in production over the whole period under study are a long-term trend or whether there are fluctuations over shorter periods.

Regarding the methodological procedures, we used standard methods of research work, such as processing the statistical data sets concerning production, yield per hectare and area of arable land at the level of EU countries and its subsequent analysis by mathematical methods (arithmetical mean and index of change). Then, we used thematic cartography methods (cartodiagrams), and comparative data analysis aimed at a year-on-year comparison of indicators at the level of EU countries and synthesis of the obtained findings.

3. Results

3.1. Percentage of Ploughing

An important indicator of crop production is the share of agricultural land in the total land area. Although Europe has the lowest share of agricultural land (20.9%, 2019) among other continents, the share of arable land is the highest (59.1%, 2019), which is the result of favourable natural conditions as well as the tradition of agriculture in this territory. Europe also has the lowest share of permanent grassland among the continents, only 37.6% (2019). The share of permanent crops (3.3%) in Europe is mainly linked to the cultivation of grapes, which has a rich history in this area—Europe is one of the world’s leading producers of grapes and wine.

Looking only at EU member states, between 2004 and 2019, the area of agricultural land decreased by 10,210.3 thousand ha (−5.8%) and arable land by 5560.9 thousand ha (−5.3%). The share of agricultural land in the total land area of EU countries in 2019 is 59.9%. The size of arable land and its share of agricultural land (percentage of ploughing) is very important for crop production. In 2019, the arable land of the EU countries represents an area of 99,419.2 thousand ha and its share of agricultural land is 60.3%. The largest areas of arable land within the EU countries are in France (18,065.0 thousand ha), Spain (18,812.3 thousand ha), Romania (8966.0 thousand ha), and Italy (6914.2 thousand ha) and Bulgaria (3476.0 thousand ha). The countries with the highest percentage of ploughing of more than 80% are Finland, Denmark, Malta, Sweden, and Hungary. The central and eastern European countries have a percentage of ploughing of more than 60%. States below 39% are Greece, Slovenia, Portugal and Ireland (Figure 1). Between 2004 and 2019, there has been a decline in the area of arable land in EU countries due to economic and social development (arable land taken for development—industrial, logistics, commercial, residential, transport and afforestation, etc.). Arable land has decreased by more than 10% in Ireland, Portugal, Croatia and Slovenia.

A major risk to the agricultural sector is the taking of the highest quality arable land for non-agricultural purposes, which must be protected and used mainly for food production in every country, so as not to jeopardize the production base for the food industry. Only two countries, Latvia and Bulgaria, experienced a higher increase in arable land area (more than 10%) between 2004 and 2019. Minimal increases in arable land area (less than 1%) occurred in Finland, Spain and Germany. Only Slovakia experienced a minimal decrease in arable land area (less than 1%). In the other EU countries, the decrease or increase in the arable land area ranged from 1.0 to 9.9%.

3.2. Cereals Cultivation

In EU countries, arable land is predominantly cultivated with cereals (mainly wheat, maize, barley, and oats). Cereals are a strategic commodity because they are the main food and feed raw material and practically do not lose value over time (they spoil slowly). Cereal cultivation is demanding in terms of soil and climatic conditions. Europe is home to the world’s major cereal-growing area, which starts at the Atlantic coast and extends as far as Siberia. Between 2004 and 2019, the average cereal production in the EU member states was 263.4 million tonnes. If we compare the average cereals production in old and new EU member states, it is evident that it varies each year, but from 2004 until 2019, it has increased in new member states and decreased in old member states (see Figure A1 in Appendix B). The largest cereal-producing countries in 2019 were France (70.4 million tonnes), Germany (44.3 million tonnes), Romania (30.4 million tonnes), Poland (28.5 million tonnes), and Spain (20.6 million tonnes). Cereal production in the EU countries fell by 3.3% in the first reference period 2008/2004. The decline in cereal production was driven by a decrease in production in 13 countries, with the highest decline in the 2 countries—Cyprus (−94.3%) and Romania (−31.0%), while the highest increases were recorded in Lithuania (59.5%), Estonia (42.0%), and Malta (34.7%) (Figure 2,

Table A1. Change in cereal, oilseed and potato production in EU countries in 2008/2004, 2013/2009, 2019/2014. Source: own elaboration based on data from FAOSTAT.

Country	Cereals			Oilseeds			Potatoes
	08/04	13/09	19/14	08/04	13/09	19/14	08/04	13/09	19/14
AUT	8.1	−10.9	−5.6	24.7	5.5	6.0	9.2	−16.3	0.1
BEL	6.2	−4.9	−11.0	19.3	39.2	−49.0	−8.9	4.0	−8.1
BGR	−6.0	46.6	16.8	38.2	48.7	−6.5	−38.4	−19.5	48.8
CYP	−94.3	−8.6	732.4	−33.9	−4.2	45.7	−12.6	−12.5	−28.6
CZE	−4.9	−4.1	−12.9	8.0	19.9	−24.1	−10.7	−28.7	−10.7
DEU	−1.9	−4.0	−14.8	−3.0	−8.2	−53.2	−12.8	−17.2	−8.7
DNK	1.6	−10.3	−2.8	34.4	7.9	2.8	3.9	1.8	39.0
EST	42.0	11.7	33.0	62.1	27.9	16.7	−24.8	−8.1	−31.7
ESP	−3.4	41.8	0.0	2.2	32.7	18.0	−22.7	−19.1	−11.2
FIN	16.9	−4.6	−2.3	18.9	−42.7	−31.9	10.5	−17.7	3.1
FRA	−0.3	−4.0	−3.0	14.1	−18.1	−28.8	−6.0	−2.3	5.9
GRC	9.8	−7.0	−31.0	−7.1	−14.2	−57.5	−1.3	−5.0	−23.6
HRV	21.5	−7.2	17.1	61.9	3.9	56.3	3.4	−39.9	7.6
HUN	0.4	0.1	−5.8	39.8	9.3	15.1	−12.7	−13.1	−39.5
IRL	−1.7	16.3	−12.8	203.0	107.6	9.6	−37.5	22.0	−0.2
ITA	−7.2	2.9	−15.6	−22.6	−4.1	8.6	−12.0	−27.4	−2.0
LTU	19.7	17.6	1.7	59.9	32.4	38.5	−29.9	−35.6	−29.6
LUX	6.6	−8.1	−3.0	−0.2	−15.8	−34.9	−2.2	−12.5	−19.2
LVA	59.5	17.2	42.0	90.2	44.8	119.5	7.2	−5.6	−55.8
MLT	34.7	−12.1	−100.0	100.0	820.0	−50.0	−16.6	25.6	−28.4
NLD	12.3	−12.0	−9.3	−4.7	−17.2	−49.8	−7.5	−8.4	−2.0
POL	−6.7	−4.6	−10.9	27.7	6.9	−30.1	−25.3	−24.9	−15.7
PRT	−4.6	21.8	−17.0	10.1	49.9	103.9	−28.8	4.2	−9.1
ROU	−31.0	40.5	37.8	−1.5	68.1	39.1	−13.7	−17.8	−25.4
SWE	−5.7	−4.9	6.4	10.7	6.3	15.6	−12.9	−6.0	3.0
SVN	−0.6	−14.0	−1.7	77.8	45.7	−24.5	−41.5	−39.9	−31.9
SVK	8.9	2.4	−12.8	32.4	2.5	−8.0	−35.8	−23.9	2.0
EU	−3.3	3.2	−3.2	4.8	7.7	−11.3	−14.2	−13.8	−6.7

in the Appendix A). In the second reference period, 2013/2009, there was a slight increase of 3.2% in EU production, despite a decrease in production in 16 EU countries. The highest declines in production were recorded in Slovenia (−14.0%), Malta (−12.1%), and the Netherlands (−12.0%). Crop production increased in several countries. The highest increases were observed in Bulgaria (46.6%), Spain (41.8%), Romania (40.5%), and Portugal (21.8%). In the third (last) reference period, 2019/2014, a slight decrease (−3.2%) is again observed in the EU countries. There is a decrease in cereal production in 18 countries, e.g., Greece (−31.0%), Portugal (−17.0%), Italy (−15.6%), and Germany (−14.8%). In the last period of 2019/2014, cereal production increased mainly in Cyprus (by 732.4%), Lithuania by 42.0% and Romania by 37.8%. The size of cereal production is strongly influenced by climate changes. As a result of rising air temperatures, cereal production has decreased in several countries. An important indicator for assessing crop production is the intensity of crop production expressed in terms of hectares of crop yield. More than 6 t/ha (this is the average value for the period 2004–2019) is achieved mainly in western European countries, e.g., Belgium, the Netherlands, France, and Germany. Lower values of the indicator (4.0–5.9 t/ha) are observed mainly in central and southern Europe (see Figure A2 in Appendix C). Very low values of the indicator (less than 3.0 t/ha) were reached in Portugal, Spain, Romania, Poland, Finland, and the Baltic States. Average cereal yields per hectare vary across the EU States, depending on differences in soil quality, the impact of weather, and the technological and economic performance of farms. In addition to natural factors, the use and intensity of artificial irrigation, application of fertilizers, pesticides and agronomic practices influence the amount of hectare yields [24].

3.3. Growing of Oilseeds

The second most cultivated group of crops is oilseeds. In the EU countries, rapeseed and sunflower are the most widely grown oilseeds. These are crops that require suitable soil and climate conditions. In 2019, the top oilseed-producing countries were Spain (6.9 million tonnes), France (5.3 million tonnes), Romania (4.8 million tonnes), and Italy (3.5 million tonnes). On average over the period 2004–2019, the EU produced 40.6 million tonnes of oilseeds. The difference in the oilseed production in old and new EU member states is evident—while in old states was quite stable during 2004–2018 and decreased in 2019, in new member states it was gradually increasing (see Figure A1 in Appendix B). In the period 2004–2008, the interest of farmers in oilseed crops, especially rapeseed, increased in the EU countries due to its use in bioenergy, which represents an increase in production of 4.8%. Oilseed production decreased in only seven countries, most notably in Cyprus by 33.9%. However, oilseed production increased by 203% in Ireland, 100% in Malta, 90.2% in Lithuania, and 77.8% in Slovenia (Figure 3, Table A1 in the Appendix A). In 2013/2009, oilseed production continued to increase (7.7% increase). Decreases in production occurred in eight countries, mainly in Finland (−42.7%), France (−18.1%), and the Netherlands (−17.2%). Significant increases in oilseed production occurred in Malta (820.0% increase), Ireland (for 107.6%), and Romania (for 68.1%). In the last reporting period 2019/2014, a decrease in EU oilseed production is observed (−11.3%). Oilseed production decreased in 13 countries. Significant drops in production occurred in Greece (−57.5%), Germany (−53.2%), Malta (−50.0%), the Netherlands (−49.8%), and Belgium (−49.0%). Oilseed production increased in 14 countries, e.g., Lithuania (119.5%), Portugal (103.9%), Romania (39.1%), and Latvia (38.5%).

Average oilseed yields per hectare for more than 3.0 t/ha in the period 2004–2019 were mainly achieved in western European countries (France, Benelux, Germany, Denmark). Most EU countries have a hectare value of oilseeds in the interval (2.0–2.9 t/ha). Very low values of the indicator (less than 1.9%) were found in Finland, Portugal, Estonia, and Cyprus. The difference in yield in the old and new member states is presented in Figure A2 in Appendix C.

3.4. Growing of Potatoes

Due to the less demanding nature of potato cultivation in terms of climatic conditions, potato cultivation in EU countries is often in areas where growing more demanding crops would not be profitable. Average potato production in the EU (2004–2019) is 53.7 million tonnes. In the old EU member states, potato production fluctuated yearly between 2004 and 2019, but overall production remains stable. On the contrary, production decreased significantly during the observed period in the new member states. Potato cultivation is mainly widespread in Germany (10.6 million tonnes), France (8.6 million tonnes), the Netherlands (7.0 million tonnes), Poland (6.5 million tonnes), and Belgium (4.0 million tonnes) (2019). Production in all the periods under review experienced a decline, with 14.2% in 2008/2004, 13.8% in 2013/2009, and a slight decline of 6.7% in 2019/2014. A decline in the first reference period is connected with 22 states (Figure 4, Table A1 in the Appendix A). Significant declines in potato production occurred in countries such as Slovenia (−41.5%), Bulgaria (−38.4%), Ireland (−37.5%), and Slovakia (−35.8%). Increases are observed, e.g., in Finland (10.5%), Austria (9.2%) and Lithuania (7.2%). In the second reference period, crop production also decreased in 22 countries. The decline in production continued in countries such as Croatia and Slovenia (−39.9%), Latvia (−35.6%), the Czech Republic (−28.7%), and Slovakia (−23.9%). Higher increases of more than 20% occurred in two countries, Malta and Ireland. Recently, production declined in 19 countries, notably in Lithuania (−55.8%), Slovenia (−31.9%), Estonia (−31.7%), and Latvia (−29.6%). Only Denmark increased production of potatoes in all periods under review (2008/2004—3.9% increase, 2013/2009—1.8% increase, and 2019/2014—39.0% increase). Higher yields per hectare (more than 40.0 t/ha), which is the average for the years 2004–2019, were achieved in western European countries, e.g., Belgium, the Netherlands, France, Germany, and Denmark. Most countries achieved average hectare yields of 20.0–39.9 t/ha. The lowest average hectare yield of potato (less than 19.9 t/ha) was recorded in countries, e.g., Portugal, Croatia, Romania, Slovakia, and the Baltic States. The difference in yield in the old and new member states is presented in Figure A2 in Appendix C.

4. Discussion

Europe is still one of the world’s most intensively used continents for agriculture, even though the area of agricultural land is gradually decreasing in favour of construction and other areas, as well as an increase in the area of forest land. This can partly be understood as a sign of the declining importance of this sector [25]. This emerging change is more pronounced in the countries joining the EU after 2004 [26]. The ongoing structural changes in agriculture (e.g., decline in agricultural land, change in the commodity structure of crop production, etc.) in relation to food production, employment and the overall impact of the sector on the economy in the Visegrad Four (V4) countries are highlighted in the study of Bartoková [27].

Due to the current manifestations of climate change, an assessment of climatic conditions is also important in analyses of the suitability of territory for growing specific crops [28]. Crop diversification has an important place in strategies to address climate change risks and uncertainty [29]. Climate changes can cause significant crop production fluctuations and affect farmers’ incomes, and crop diversification can stabilize them [30].

More and more countries in Europe and around the world are already feeling the effects of climate change in the form of longer periods of drought, extreme temperatures, frost, hail, heavy rains, floods, forest fires, etc. These threats are directly linked to the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem degradation. According to the authors Smatana and Macák [31], based on the adaptation strategy of the EU countries to climate change, the expected consequences of climate change on plant production can be summarized as, e.g., changes in the composition of harmful organisms (diseases, weed pests), but especially with the increase in the number of harmful organisms, which will increase the need for pesticide protection, changes in the temperature security of plant production, the extension of the main growing season, this will require a change in agrotechnical terms and the varietal composition of crops, changes in the phenological conditions of crops and the influence of the harvest, especially due to insufficient moisture security in the developmental stages of plants, will increase the instability of the crops, further, changes in the distribution of precipitation and moisture security of plants will be manifested at lower altitudes by a higher decrease in precipitation and excessive drought or the absence of snow cover will cause an increased risk of freezing in winter crops, and so on. Several studies confirm that farmers use different strategies to mitigate the expected risks. Adaptation strategies for the effects of climate change on the development of sustainable agriculture can be found in the authors’ works in [32,33,34,35].

In the context of these emerging changes, there is a very intense discussion in the V4 countries regarding the production of industrial crops, especially oilseeds. The EU CAP for biofuel production has had a significant impact on increasing rapeseed production and the V4 countries have gradually become self-sufficient in this commodity. They are highly competitive in exporting the raw material to western Europe but lose out on economic gains from processing the commodity [36]. Wozniak et al. [37] in their study highlight the current potential of oilseed rape as a versatile multipurpose crop. It is one of the most popular cultivated oilseeds in Europe. Previous analyses show that oilseed production in the EU is on an upward trend in most countries. In several countries, oilseed production is higher than its consumption. In Slovakia, for example, there is no rapeseed processing capacity for food purposes, only biodiesel processors. A large part of the production of this crop is exported to other EU countries. In several countries, oilseed rape cultivation for food production is being phased out. The EU CAP supports the cultivation of the crop for production of the ingredients compulsorily blended into fuels by subsidies. In the EU, France and Germany in particular are the leaders in biodiesel consumption, accounting for about 40% of the EU total. These countries are also characterized by the largest area under rapeseed cultivation, accounting for 43% of the total EU area [38].

Biofuels produced in the EU are mostly first-generation biofuels, produced mainly from agricultural materials. A change in use of rapeseed for non-food purposes has occurred since 2003. In that year, the EU Biofuels Directive (2003/30/EC) was implemented and targets for biofuels were set. The share of rapeseed production for industrial purposes ranged from 15% to 40% until 2003. The rest of the rapeseed produced was used for its primary purpose, which is the production of food and feed. The increasing production of biodiesel leads to an increase in oilseed rape production and acreage. Biodiesel production presents new opportunities for farmers to locate their production. The growth in biodiesel production leads to changes in the orientation of rapeseed consumption and the use [39]. In Poland, use of rapeseed for energy purposes in particular increases, and the four neighbouring voivodships have the largest energy production potential of this commodity: Dolnoslaskie, Opolskie, Wielkopolskie and Kujawsko-Pomorskie [40]. Energy crops can contribute to promoting the participation of biofuels in energy supply and to achieving the objectives of the current energy policy while at the same time supporting the agricultural sector, which is clearly in crisis. Rapeseed prices have risen mainly due to the demand for renewable energy [41]. Oilseed rape cultivation is the result of EU countries’ emission policies aimed at reducing CO₂ emissions from transport, but from a biodiversity perspective, its monoculture cultivation is criticized as it often requires intensive use of fertilizers and pesticides. As biofuel production competes for raw materials with the food economy and also as current oilseed cultivation conflicts with the environmental goals of agriculture, which cannot ignore crop diversity, some EU countries have started to abandon policies supporting the biofuel sector, which may contribute to the reduction in oilseed acreage [42], according to the study from Poland. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, current agricultural management focused on monoculture production (mainly cereals and oilseeds) is also a significant cause of biodiversity loss in EU countries. It is, therefore, necessary to replace the production of first-generation biofuels, which are produced from agricultural crops, with the production of second-generation biofuels. It would be more appropriate to focus on the cultivation of oilseed rape for food purposes in EU countries and to reduce its non-food use [3].

5. Conclusions

The area of arable land of the EU member states slightly decreases each year due to its take-up for non-agricultural use. The EU is characterized by a roughly 60% share of agricultural land in the total land area and also an equal share of arable land in agricultural land. In this paper, we focus on the production of the most cultivated arable crops in the EU countries—cereals, oilseeds, and potatoes, the production of which has been declining in most EU countries for a long time.

The largest cereal producers in terms of average production over the period 2004–2019 within the EU countries were France (70.4 million tonnes), Germany (44.3 million tonnes), Romania (30.4 million tonnes), and Poland (28.5 million tonnes). For cereals, a slight decline in production has been observed in most EU countries over the long term. In all periods under review, cereal production increases only in the Baltic States.

For oilseeds, the most important producers in the period 2004–2019 were Spain (4.4 million tonnes), France (6.7 million tonnes), Germany (5.0 million tonnes), and Italy (4.1 million tonnes). Oilseeds are the crops with the highest subsidy support, with high market demand and they are also used for industrial purposes. Oilseed production tended to increase in the first two periods in several countries but has recently started to decline slightly. Our study shows that the increase in the structure of crops used for biofuel production (oilseeds) can act as a risk factor in the form of changes in the commodity structure of crop production within the agro-sector, changes that outwardly appear to be a positive step, but in fact are a threat to the production base for the food industry or the saturation of the requirements and needs of food security of the state. This is a global problem that affects several EU countries. The lack of crops for the food industry may cause several EU countries to become food-independent in the production of products made from oilseeds. For example, in Slovakia in 2004, roughly 70% of oilseed production was used for food production and 30% of oilseed production was used for biodiesel production, but in 2019 up to 90% of oilseed production was used for non-food purposes. A one-sided high proportion, especially of rapeseed, can also cause problems in sowing procedures, increased soil erosion, the weeding of the landscape, and increasing application of pesticides, which this crop requires during intensive farming. The highest growth dynamics of the production of the above-mentioned group of crops were recorded in the countries that joined the EU after 2004.

Potato production is the least stable of all the crops studied. Germany (11.0 million tonnes), Poland (9.1 million tonnes), France (7.2 million tonnes), and the Netherlands (7.0 million tonnes) produced the most potatoes. This production had declining tendency in most countries in all periods under review. Potatoes are one of the more demanding crops to grow compared to cereals and oilseeds. They are a crop with lower market demand and without subsidy support. In the future, it will be necessary in several EU countries to change the structure of crop production in favour of more labour-intensive crops such as potatoes, legumes or vegetables to increase the diversification of crops grown in the agricultural landscape. When analysing another indicator, namely potato yield per hectare, we found that the highest yields per hectare were achieved in the old member states, the most agriculturally advanced EU countries, e.g., France, Belgium, The Netherlands, Denmark, and Germany. Other countries showed lower values for this indicator.

The current study presents development changes in crop production in the European Union countries after 2004 until 2019, the year of the most up-to-date data. Of value are the comparisons of individual countries dedicated to selected indicators such as the area of arable land, production, hectare yield of the most important crops for the selected two 5-year and last 6-year periods and the cartographic visualization of partial results. Significant regional geographical differences between individual EU states were found, which mainly reflect different natural conditions and prerequisites for agriculture and differences in the historical and social development of individual countries. The study showed which crops the EU countries’ plant production must focus on to increase their food self-sufficiency and draw attention to the risks brought by the cultivation of monocultures such as cereals and oilseeds and their non-food use. We should not forget the importance of agriculture in adapting and reducing the impacts of climate change on the country and in maintaining and managing European biodiversity.

As the world’s population grows, agriculture will need to produce more food in the future. At the same time, the area of arable land is reduced per one inhabitant. Due to the growing world population, it is necessary to increase the production of crops in changing climatic conditions to increase the resistance of crops to pests and weeds and solve the ongoing labour shortage.