A Comprehensive Review of Organochlorine Pesticide Monitoring in Agricultural Soils: The Silent Threat of a Conventional Agricultural Past
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Research Methodology—Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria
1.2. General Overview of Organochlorine Pesticides
1.3. Context of This Review
1.4. Practices Used in Soil Monitoring and Surveys of OCPs
2. Determination of Organochloride Pesticide Residues in Soil
2.1. Analytes to Be Determined and Their Physico-Chemical Properties—A Step before Chemical Analysis
2.2. Sampling
3. Chemical Analysis
3.1. Extraction Techniques Used for Solid Environmental Samples
3.1.1. Solvent Extraction Techniques
Conventional Solvent Extraction Techniques
Modern Extraction Techniques
3.1.2. Other Extraction and Clean-Up Techniques
QuEChERS Extraction Technique
3.1.3. An Overview of the Extraction Procedures
3.2. Analytical Methods
4. OCPs’ Occurrence in Agricultural Soil
4.1. European Countries
4.2. African Countries
4.3. Asian Countries
4.4. American Countries
4.5. Overall Integration of the Studies Outcomes
5. World-Wide Data Combination
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Analyte; IUPAC Name; Molecular Formula, etc. | Molecular Weight (g mol−1) | Molecular Structure | Regulatory Status: EC Regulation 1107/2009 Repealing 91/414 (Introduced/First Reported) | Soil Degradation DT 50 (Days) | Vapor Pressure (VP) at 20 °C (mPa) | Henry’s Law Constant (H) at 25 °C (Pa m³ /mol) | Octanol–Water Partition Coefficient, LogKow (pH 7, 20 °C) | Solubility in Water (mg L−1)/ Solubility in Organic Solvents |
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DDT is an Unstated isomer mix containing roughly 75–85% p,p′-DDT, 10–15% o,p′-DDT, and a small amount of o,o′-DDT. Any balance is composed of transformation products DDE and DDD; 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane; C14H9Cl5, CAS 50-29-3 p,p′-DDT major isomer; 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane; o,p′-DDT, an isomer of DDT which is normally around 10–15% of the DDT isomeric mix; 1-chloro-2-(2,2,2-trichloro-1-(4-chlorophenyl)ethyl)benzene o,o′-DDT a minor isomer; 1-chloro-2-(2,2,2-trichloro-1-(2-chlorophenyl)ethyl)benzene | 354.49 | | Not approved (1944) | 6200 Other sources: 3 months in tropical regions, 4–30 years in temperate regions | 0.025 for DDT, 0.025–0.8 (at 20–25 °C) for p,p′ DDT | 8.43 × 10−1 for DDT 0.86–8.2 (at 20–25 °C for p,p-′DDT) | 6.91, 6.36 | 0.006 (at 20 °C for DDT), 0.025 (at 25 °C for p,p′-DDT): insoluble/readily soluble in aromatic and chlorinated solvents (e.g., ethyl ether, acetone, cyclohexanone, dichloromethane, benzene, and xylene) |
DDD consists of three isomeric forms: p,p′-DDD, o,p′-DDD, and o,o′-DDD. p,p′-DDD is the dominant isomer: impurities or metabolites of technical DDT; 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane; C14H10C4,CAS 72-54-8 | 320.02 | | Not approved (1944) | 1000 | 0.18 | 4.0 × 10−6 | 6.02 | 0.090 (at 20 °C): very slightly soluble. |
p,p′-DDE impurities or metabolites of technical DDT; p,p′ Dichloro diphenyl dichloroethane; CAS 72-55-9 | 318.02 | | No commercial use | 5000 | 0.024 | 2.1 × 10−5 | 6.51 | 0.12 (at 25 °C): slightly soluble/lipids, many organic solvents |
Endrin, known also as Aldrin epoxide; 1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-6,7-epoxy-1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-exo-1,4-exo-5,8-dimethanonaphthalene; C12H8Cl6O, CAS 72-20-8 | 380.91 | | Not approved (1950s) | 4300 Other sources: up to 12 years; DT₅₀ 4–14 days (FAO) | 2 × 10−7, other sources: 0.02720- (at 25 °C) | 1.48 × 10−1, other sources: 0.05–0.76 (at 20–25 °C) | 3.2, 5.20 Other sources: 5.6, 5.34, 5.45 (calculated) | 0.24 (at 20°C): slightly soluble. Acetone: 17 g/100 mL; benzene: 13.8 g/100 mL; carbon tetrachloride: 3.3 g/100 mg/L; hexane: 7.1 g/100 mL; xylene: 18.3 g/100 mL |
Dieldrin, a chiral cyclodiene molecule, can be the metabolite of aldrin; (1R,4S,4aS,5R,6R,7S,8S,8aR)-1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-1,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-6,7-epoxy-1,4:5,8-dimethanonaphthalene; C12H8Cl6O, CAS 60–57-1 | 380.91 | | Not approved (1949) | 1400 Other sources: 800–900 days, 2.6–12.5 years | 0.024, other sources: 0.02–2.4, 3.1 × 10−3 mmHg (at 20 °C) 5.89 × 10−3 mmHg (at 25 °C) | 6.50 × 10−2, other sources: 0.02–5.88 | 3.7, 3.69–6.2 | 0.l4 (at 20 °C), 0.2 (at 20–25 °C): slightly soluble/moderately soluble in common organic solvents except aliphatic petroleum solvents and methyl alcohol |
Chlordane is a chiral molecule. Chlordane is a complex mixture of isomers, other chlorinated hydrocarbons, and a range of by-products: 1,2,4,5,6,7,8,8-octachloro-2,3,3a,4,7,7a-hexahydro-4,7-methanoindene; C10H6Cl8, CAS 57-74-9 | 409.78 | | Not approved (circa 1950) | 350 Other sources: approx 1 year; 283 days to 3.8 years; 4 years (FAO) | 1.3 Other sources: cis-chlordane 2.2 × 10−5 mmHg (crystal) 3.0 × 10−6 mmHg trans-chlordane 2.9 × 10−5 mmHg (crystal) 3.9 × 10−6 mmHg | 0.39 × 10−3, other sources: 2.92–9.5 | 2.78, 5.54 | 0.1–1.83 at 20 °C: slightly soluble/miscible: miscible with most aliphatic and aromatic organic solvents; ethanol, cyclohexane, and isopropanol, including acetone |
Heptachlor is a molecule with 5 chiral centers: 1,4,5,6,7,8,8-heptachloro-3a,4,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,7-methanoindene; C10H5Cl7, CAS 76-44-8 | 373.32 | | Not approved (1951) | 285 Other sources: 9–10 months, about 2 years | 53 highly volatile | 3.53 × 102, 112–845 volatile | 5.44, 4.4–5.5 | 0.056 at 20 °C: very slightly soluble/soluble in many organic solvents, e.g., in acetone 75, benzene 106, xylene 102, cyclohexanone 1190, carbon tetrachloride 1130, and ethanol 450 |
HCH: C6H6Cl6, CAS 608-73-1 chiral, exists as eight or more isomers: 60–70% alpha-isomer (α-HCH); 5–12% beta-isomer (β-HCH), 6–10% delta isomer (δ-HCH), 3–4% epsilon isomer (ε-HCH), 10–15% gamma isomer (γ-HCH), etc. | 290.82 | | α-HCH = 3–6 β-HCH = 0.04–0.12 δ-HCH = 0.02–0.08 γ-HCH = 1–21.3 | 3.80 α and β isomer, 4.14 δ-HCH, 3.5 γ-HCH | 8.52 (25 °C): 8.35 (pH 5, 25 °C). In acetone > 200, methanol 29–40, ethyl acetate < 200, and n-heptane 10–14 (all at 20 °C) | |||
α-HCH: 1-alpha, 2-alpha, 3-beta, 4-alpha, 5-beta, 6-beta-benzene-transhexachloride; CAS 319-84-6 | | 5.99, 4.5 × 10−5 mmHg at 25 °C | 6.86 × 10−6 | 3.8 high | 69.5 mg/L at 28 °C: moderately soluble | |||
β-HCH: 1-alpha, 2-beta, 3-alpha, 4-beta, 5-aplha, 6-beta-exachlorocyclohexane; CAS 319-85-7 | | 0.029, 3.6 × 10−7 mmHg at 20 °C | 4.5 × 10−7 | 3.78 high | 2.41/- | |||
δ-HCH: 1-alpha,2-alpha,3-alpha, 4-beta, 5-alpha, 6-beta-hexachlorocyclohexane; CAS 319-86-8 | | 3.5 × 10−5 mmHg at 25 °C | 2.1 × 10−7 | 4.14 | ||||
γ-HCH or LND: 1α,2α,3β,4α,5α,6β-hexachlorocyclohexane; C6H6Cl6, CAS 58-89-9 | | Not approved (circa 1945; first prepared in 1825) | 400–980 | 4.4, 4.2 × 10−5 mmHg at 20 °C | 1.483 × 10−6, 3.5 × 10−6 | 3.50, 3.72 | 7.3 at 25 °C; 8.52 at 20 °C: slightly soluble/readily soluble in acetone, benzene, methanol, and ethyl acetate | |
Endosulfan is an isomer mixture of alpha- and beta-endosulfan; 1,4,5,6,7,7-hexachloro-8,9,10-trinorborn-5-en-2,3-ylenebismethylene sulfite; C9H6Cl6O3S, CAS 115-29-7, CAS [959–98-8] α-endosulfan, CAS [891–86-1] β-endosulfan | 406.93 | | Not approved (circa 1956) | 50, other sources: 28–50, 62–126, 68–87; 60–800 (FAO) | 0.83 mixture of α- and β-isomers 2:1), 0.28–1.47 at 20–25 °C | 1.48 (α-isomer) 0.07 (β-isomer) (22 °C) | 4.74 α-isomer (pH 5) 4.79 β-isomer (pH 5) | 0.32 at 20 °C: slightly soluble/ readily soluble in ethyl acetate, dichloro-methane, toluene 200, ethanol 65, and n-hexane 24 |
Isodrin is an isomer of aldrin. Isomeric. The 5S,8R isomeris known as aldrin (1R,4S,5R,8S)-1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-1,4,4a,5,8,8a-hexahydro-1,4:5,8-dimethanonaphthalene; C12H8Cl6 CAS 4 65-73-6 | 364.91 | | Not approved (circa 1940s) | Very persistent | 5.866, 10.35 | 39.21 | 6.75 | 0.014 at 20 °C: very slightly soluble. |
Aldrin (ALD) is a chiral molecule; aldrin is one of the several isomers of hexachlorohexahydrodimethanonaphthalene; (1R,4S,4aS,5S,8R,8aR)-1,2,3,4,10,10-hexachloro-1,4,4a,5,8,8α-hexahydro-1,4:5,8-dimethanonaphthalene; C12H8Cl6, CAS 309-00-2 | 364.91 | | Not approved (circa 1950) | 365 Other sources: 20–100 days (FAO) | 8.6 at 20 °C, 0.9–3.1 at 20–25 °C, 7.5 × 10−5 mmHg at 20 °C, 1.2 × 10−4 mmHg at 25 °C, 8.6 at 20 °C | 17.2 at 25 °C, 4.46–91.23 at 20–25 °C | 6.50, 5.17–7.4, 6.82 | 0.027 at 20 °C, 0.017 at 20–25 °C: very slightly soluble/ moderately to very soluble in most aromatic hydrocarbons, esters, ketones, and halogenated solvents: acetone, benzene, and xylene |
MRX: dodecachloropentacyclodecane; C10Cl12, CAS 2385-85-5 | 545.54 | | Not approved (1946, first reported) | 300 Other sources: 3000, up to 10 years | 0.11 at 20–25 °C, 3 × 10−7 mm Hg (at 25 °C) | 839.4 at 25 °C volatile, 8.11 × 10−4 atm-m3/mole | 6.89, 5.28 (pH 7, 20 °C) | 0.085 at 25 °C, 0.0001 at 20 °C: insoluble/very soluble in dioxane, benzene chloroform, and xylene |
HCB: perchlorobenzene; C₆Cl₆, CAS 118-74-1 | 284.80 | | Not approved (circa 1947) | 2.7–7.5 years | 1.45 | 10.3 | 3.93 | 0.0047 at 20 °C: insoluble. |
Chlordecone is a chiral molecule; perchloropentacyclodecan-5-one; C₁₀Cl₁₀O, CAS 143-50-0 | 490.64 | | Not approved (first reported 1952, 1966 commercial production) | - | 3.5 × 10−5 | 2.53 × 10−3 | 4.5 | 3.0 at 20 °C: slightly soluble/slightly soluble in hydrocarbon solvents; soluble in alcohols, ketones, and acetic acid |
DCF is chemically related to DDT and used as acaricide.; 2,2,2-trichloro-1,1-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethanol; C14H9Cl5O, CAS 115–32-2 | 370.5 | | Not approved (1956 first reported, 1957 commercial production) | 40–80, other source: 95 days (FAO) | 0.25, 5.3 × 10−3 at 25 °C | 2.45 × 10−2, 5.7 × 10−5 | 3.5–4.3 | 0.8 at 25 °C: insoluble/soluble in organic solvents: toluene 400, methanol 36, and isopropanol 30 |
Toxaphene or Camphechlor a chiral molecule; reaction mixture of chlorinated camphenes containing 67–69% chlorine; CAS name:2,2,5-endo,6-exo,8,8,9,10-Octachlorobornane; C10H10Cl8 (approximately, CAS 8001–35-2) | 414 (average) | | Not approved (1947, first developed) | 365, other sources (highly variable): 2 months and 14 years; US sources: 9 days; Field DT₅₀ 9 to 500 days | 0.67, other sources: 0.13–0.53 (at 20–25 °C) | 6.08 × 10−1, 0.42–6382 at 20–25 °C | 3.2–5.5 | In water: 0.3–3/soluble in organic solvents: benzene, xylene, and carbon tetrachloride |
Analytes | Sample Treatment | Technique | LODs, LOQs | Recovery % (RSD %) | Reference/Year | |
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α-, β-, γ-HCH, aldrin, endrin, dieldrin, p,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDD, p,p′-DDT, α-, β-endosulfan, heptachlorobenzene (HPT) | ASE Extraction solvent: hexane-acetone (1:1–45 mL); conditions: 50 °C; 1500 psi; preheating period, 5 min; static extraction, 5 min | GC–ECD HP-5MS (cross-linked 5%-phenyl-methylpolysiloxane) of 30 m × 0.25 mm with a 0.25 µm, carrier gas; helium, was 2.8 mL min−1 | 0.0003–0.2 ng/g (LOD) highest for p,p′-DDT and lowest for p,p′-DDD and β- endosulfan | 64–103 (1.8–11) | [84]/2008 | |
MRX, α- and γ- Chlordane, p,p′-DDT, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxies isomer A, γ-HCH, dieldrin, endrin, aldrin, and HCB | MAE 20 mL (n-hexane–acetone 1:1)-HS SPME HS-SPME conditions: headspace sampling of 40 mL of sample (1.8% of ethanol) at 65 °C for 60 min, with 100 μm PDMS-coated fiber | GC–MS/MS (EI at 70 eV) with multiple reaction monitoring (MRM)), Varian 60 m × 0.25 mm CP-Sil 8 CB lowbleed/MS (0.24 μm film thickness). Helium (0.9 mL/min, constant flow) as carrier gas | 0.02 to 3.6 ng/g (LOD) | 35–51 with four exceptions (aldrin, the chlordanes, and MRX) (2–13) for soil with high content of organics (8.4%) 72–115 (16–31) for soil with low content of organics (2.2%) | [69]/2006 | |
MRX, DDT, chlordane, HPT, LND, HCB, heptachlor, aldrin, trans- and cis- chlordane, endrin | SLE-LTP 4.00 g of soil with 4 mL of water and 8 mL of acetonitrile, vortex for 5 min, freezer at −20 °C for 1 h for phase separation. Organic phase to 375 mg of anhydrous sodium sulphate, vortex for 30 s and centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 10 min | GC–MS (EI at 70 Ev) and selective ion monitoring mode (SIM), DB-5 MS capillary column, with 5% phenyl stationary phase and 95% methylpolysiloxane (30 m × 0.32 mm i.d. × 0.25 μm, helium as carrier gas at a flow rate of 1.0 mL min−1 | 1 and 6 ng/g (LOQ) | 78–115 (1–13) | [108]/2017 | |
p,p′-DDD, p,p′DDT, o,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDE, dieldrin | MAME-SPME 2 g sample, no solvent MAME: 8 mL of surfactant: Polyoxyethlylene 10 Lauryl Ether with concentration is 5% (v/v) for 2 g of soils; 1000 W for microwave power during 14 min SPME: PDMS/DVB fiber; 40 min for absorption time, 4 min for desorption time, room temperature, and non-addition of salt | HPLC-UV Varian Microsorb-MV 100 C18 column, 250 mm × 4.6 mm, 8 μm, methanol–water (85:15%, v/v) isocratic with a flow-rate of 1 mL min−1 238 nm (Diledrin 220 nm) | 56–96 ng/g (LOD) | 76–98 (5.5–8.4) soil (in the range of concentrations studied (120–2000 ng g−1) with organic matter (3.9–6.2%), except dieldrin for garden uses soil.) | [94]/2006 | |
α-, β-, γ-, δ- HCH, heptachlor, aldrin, dieldrin, o,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDT, methoxychlor, MRX, heptachlor | USE Extraction: 10 g soil, twice petroleum ether and acetone (1/1 v/v) for 20 min, volume: 25 mL clean-up column activated Alumina, 1 mL extract with 100 mL of n-hexane:ethylacetate (7/3 v/v) | GC–ECD DB- 1701 (30 m length, 0.25 mm i.d. and 0.25 μm) and HP-5 (for confirmation) column, nitrogen was used as carrier (flow rate 1.23 mL/min) | 4.8–10.3 ng/g (LOQ) | >88 (<6) for 15–200 ng g−1, 92–101 (1–3) using clean-up chromatography (note: soil was 56.1% sand, 22.9% silt, 21.0% clay, organic matter: 1.68%, pH (0.01 M CaCl2): 7.1 and maximum water capacity: 21.2%.) | [56]/2006 | |
Simultaneous extraction of PAHs and OCPs including DDTs and HCHs (α-, β-, γ-, δ-HCH, o,p′-DDE, o,p′-DDD, o,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDD, and p,p′-DDT) | Soxhlet Extraction: 5 g soil, 100 mL hexane/acetone (1:1, v/v) for 15 h. | Clean-up: dryness under reduced pressure in a 35 °C water bath using a rotary evaporator, n-hexane, chromatography column (30 cm × 10 mm i.d.) filled with 10 g silica gel (100–200 mesh) to separate the PAHs, DDTs | GC–ECD HP-5 column (0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 μm film thickness), N2 as carrier gas at a rate of 23 mL min−1. | 0.47–1.67 ng/g (LOQ) | 86.8–105.1 (0.61–13.12) at levels of 20 ng g−1 of each compound in soil samples | [81]/2007 |
MAE Extraction: 5 g soil, 25 mL n-hexane and acetone (1:1, v/v); 1200 W, 110 °C for 20 min, | 053–1.40 ng/g (LOQ) | 85.0–104.0 (0.5–9.3) at levels of 20 ng g−1 of each compound in soil samples | ||||
ASE Extraction: 10 g soil, DCM/ acetone (1:1) at 140 °C and 1500 psi, 11 min | 0.53–1.87 ng/g (LOQ) | 82.9–105.4 (0.5–1.9) at levels of 20 ng g−1 of each compound in soil samples | ||||
19 OCPs: α-HCH, γ-HCH, heptachlor, trans- and cis-chlordane, p,p′-DDT, o,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDD, p,p′-DDE, aldrin, dieldrin, α-endosulfan and β- endosulfan, endosulfan sulfate, heptachlor, trans- heptachlor epoxide, etc. | QuEChERS with liquid–liquid partition and hydration: 5 g air-dried, 5-day-aged soil with 10 mL water or 1.0 M aqueous Na2-EDTA solution for 30 min. Extraction: An aliquot (10 mL) of acetonitrile + acetic acid mixture (99:1, v/v) was added to the centrifuge tube containing the hydrated sample. After 30 s vortex, 4 g anhydrous MgSO4 (4.0 g) and NaAc·3H2O (1.7 g) were added. The contents were shaken vigorously and then centrifuged at 5000× g for 5 min. Simple clean-up/concentration step: aliquot (8 mL) of the upper acetonitrile layer in hexane | GC–MS/MS triple quadrupole MS/MS in EI mode and MRM, fused silica capillary column (Zebron ZB-50, 50% phenyl 50% methylpolysiloxane, 30 m × 0.25 mm i.d., and 0.25 μm film thickness; helium as carrier gas at 1 mL min−1 | 1 ng/g (LOQ) | 70–100 (<20) at 1–200 g kg−1 (exception of HCB) Notes: no significant difference in extraction efficiency for the two hydration methods—no need to use EDTA; 5 soils with organic matter: 1.0–9.8%, etc.—not adversely affected regardless of the type of 5 samples | [67]/2010 | |
Multi-residue method: 38 pesticides include 13 organophosphorus pesticides, 4 herbicides, 8 fungicides, 2 carbamates, 4 pyrethroids, and 7 other class pesticides including endosulfan, DCF | QuEChERS 1.10 g of freeze-dried soil/sediment samples, acetonitrile and buffer salt consisting of 8 g of magnesium sulfate anhydrous grit, 2 g of sodium chloride, 1 g di-sodium hydrogen citrate sesquihydrate, and 2 g of trisodium citrate dehydrate 2.10 mL acetonitrile phase, 1.5 g of MgSO4, and 250 mg PSA and internal stds: pentachloronitrobenzene and triphenylphosphate in methanol | GC–MS with electron impact ionization mode, 5MSi column (30 m × 0.25 mm, 0.25 µm film thickness); Helium carrier | 6–20 ng/g (LOQ) 6.4 ng/g (LOQ for dicofol), 22.4 ng/g (LOQ for endosulfan I); 10.3 ng/g (LOQ for endosulfan II) | 94–110 (3–11) | [124]/2010 | |
14 OCPs: α-,β-,γ-,δ--HCH, HCB, o,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDE, p, p′-DDD, aldrindieldrin, endrin, α-,β- endosulfan, etc. Note: two types of soils 1. HS (organic carbon 2.3%) 2. LS (organic carbon <2.3% | QuEChERS 5 g of dried sieved soil Two types of extraction: (i) adding 3 mL of water and 7 mL of ACN (ii) 20 mL of ACN. 6 g magnesium sulphate (MgSO4), 1.5 g sodium chloride (NaCl), 0.750 g disodium citrate sesquihydrate (Na2HCit 1.5H2O), and 1.5 g sodium citrate dihydrate (Na3Cit 2H2O) Clean-up: 1.5 mL of the supernatant, 50 mg of PSA, 150 mg of MgSO4 and 50 mg of C18 | GC–ECD ZB-XLB column (0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 μm film thickness, Zebron-Phenomenex), helium as carrier gas at flow rate of 1.3 mL/min GC–MS (SIM) and MS/MS (confirmation); SLB-5MS column (30 m 0.25 mm, 0.25 μm film thickness) | For HS 0.0114–0.079 ng g−1, for LS 0.0204–0.0493 ng g−1. | 77–130 (≤16) with the addition of H2O 20–46 without H2O addition Only dieldrin could be quantified attending the concentration level of 45.36 g kg–1 0.01–0.14 ng g−1 for HS soils and 0.005–0.100 ng g−1 for LS soils. | [112]/2012 | |
15 OCPs: α-CHLOR, β-CHLOR, o,p′-DDE, p,p′ -DDE, o,p′-DDT, p,p′ -DDT, o,p′-DDD, p,p′-DDD, α-, β-chlordane, α-endosulfan, LND, aldrin, endrin, MRX, etc. | QuEChERS 5 g soil with hydration step (water) Solvent: hexane:acetone (9:1 v/v) 1 g /NaCl; d-SPE: 1.5 mL upper layer solvent with 40 mg florisil and 150 mg MgSO4 | APGC-QTOF-MS HP-5MS with positive polarity (API), analytical column of 30 m × 0.250 mm inner diameter and 0.25 μm film thickness, helium as carrier gas at 2.0 mL/min Compared with EI: more sensitive | <9.99 μg/L (LOQ) | 70.3–118.9 (0.4–18.3 intra-day and 1.0–15.6 inter-day) 10–500 μg/L | [129]/2016 | |
26 OCPs including aldrin, α-, β-, γ-, δ- HCHs, α-, γ-chlordane, o, p′-DDD, p, p′-DDD, o, p -DDE, p, p′ -DDE, o,p′-DDT, p, p′-DDT, dieldrin, endosulfan I, endosulfan II, endrin, heptachlor, HCB, isodrin, methoxychlor, MRX, oxychlordane, etc., and 2 hexabromobiphenyls (HBBs) | MAE Extraction: hexane: acetone (1:1, v/v)) Clean-up: SPE (10 mm i.d. 350 mm length) with 10 g alumina, 10 g silica gel, and 1 cm anhydrous sodium sulfate. | GC–GC–MS with negative chemical ionization (NCI) and SIM, HP-5MS column HP-5MS column (30 m 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 μm film thickness), helium as the carrier gas with a constant flow rate of 1.0 mL min−1 | 0.2–5 ng/mL (LOD) | 93.0–128.3 (3.0–10.8) 0.1–450 ng/mL Notes: Higher sensitivity with GC–ECD but false positives and overestimation were found by the GC–ECD | [100]/2013 | |
GC–ECD (30 m 0.32 mm i.d., 0.25 μm film thickness) | 0.05–0.2 ng/mL (LOD) | |||||
10 OCPs: α-, β- and γ-HCH, o,p′-DDT, o,p′-DDD, o,p′-DDE, cis-chlordane, trans- chlordane, α-endosulfan, and β-endosulfan. Several soils with organic matter 3.8–42.0 g/100 gdwt | MAE-SPE Soil samples (5 g), solvent: petroleum ether–acetone (1:1, v/v). 100 °C over 5 min and held for 10 min, cooled down for 15 min. The microwave power was 800 W—extracts were filtered through 5 g of anhydrous sodium sulfate for dehydration—purification on Florisil-SPE column | GC–ECD HP-5 column (30 m, 0.32 mm i.d., 0.25 μm film), N2 as the carrier gas and the flow rate was 1.0 mL/min; (confirmation with GC–MS\MS; TR-35MS column 30 m, 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 μm film thickness). Helium as carrier gas at a constant flow rate of 1.0 mL/min) | 1.9–4.9 ng/g | 95–5-114.9 (1.9–4.9) 60.6–119.0 (2.7–12) for 0.01 μg/g 55.3–109.0 (2.3–4.6) for 0.1 μg/g Notes: Higher extraction efficiency compared to the other 3 extraction methods | [95]/2015 | |
ASE Soil samples (5 g), solvent: acetone: petroleum ether (1:1, v/v) at 110 °C, 1500 psi with 6 min for heating, 22 min | 47.5–117.9 (1.4–6.0) | |||||
USE 30 min using 20 mL of acetone: petroleum ether (1:1, v/v) as the solvent, at 3500 rpm for 3 min | 58–9–127.9 (3.0–7.4) | |||||
QuEChERS Soil samples (5 g), extraction solvent: 3 mL of water and 7 mL of acetonitrile; 6 g magnesium sulphate (MgSO4), 1.5 g sodium chloride (NaCl), 0.75 g disodium citrate sesquihydrate (Na2HCit1.5H2O), and 1.5 g sodium citrate dihydrate (Na3Cit2H2O); d-SPE: 50 mg of PSA (primary secondary amine), 150 mg of MgSO4, and 50 mg of C18. | 1–7–12.1 ng/g | 80–123.4 lowest recovery (56.8%) for o,p′-DDD (1.7–12.1) | ||||
17 OCPs: p,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDD, p,p′-DDT, α-HCH, γ-HCH, β-HCH, δ-HCH, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, endrin aldehyde, α-, β-endosulfan, endosulfan sulphate, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, and methoxychlor | QuEChERS Air-dried soil samples (10 g), extraction: ACN; 4 g MgSO4 (activated), 1 g NaCl clean-up: 10 mL supernatant in 1.5 g MgSO4 and d-SPE: 500 mg PSA Dry residue reconstituted in 1 mL of n-hexane | GC–ECD T G-5MS column (30 m and 0.25 mm i.d. with a 0.25 μm film thickness), nitrogen as the carrier gas at 1 mL/min | 3.74–11.33 ng/g (LOQ) Highest LOQ was observed for β-endosulfan and lowest for aldrin 4.78 to 11.33 ng/g | 52.1–110.9 (0.19–3.57) The concentration of ∑OCP ranged from 6.35 ng/g to 118.29 ng/g, with most the frequently found being β-endosulfan. | [4]/2020 | |
19 OCPs: α-, β-, γ-, δ-HCHs, p,p′-DDE, o,p′-DDE, p,p′-TDE, o,p′-TDE, o,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide (isomer A), heptachlor epoxide (isomer B), α-endosulfan, β-endosulfan, and HCB | PHWE-SPE-SPME Extraction PHWE: 10 g clean soil μg/kg extracted in 1 L ultrapure water at 1500 psi and 150 °C SPE: concentrated at Lichrolut C18 cartridge SPME:Fiber type: PDMS/DVB | GC–ECD DB-XLB column (60 and 0.25 mm, 0.25 μm film thickness), helium as carrier gas | 24 and 22 ng/g, (LOQ) lowest HCB and highest p,p′-DDT | 80–115 and satisfactory precisions were obtained. Between LOQs and 500 lg/kg−1 for most of the studied pesticides | [103]/2010 | |
19 OCPs: α-, β-, γ-, δ-HCHs, p,p′--DDE, o,p′-DDE, p,p′TDE, o,p′-TDE, o,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide (isomer A), heptachlor epoxide (isomer B), α-endosulfan, β-endosulfan, and HCB | PHWE-SPE-SPME Extraction PHWE: 10 g clean soil μg/kg extracted in 1 L ultrapure water at 1500 psi and 150 °C SPE: concentrated at Lichrolut C18 cartridge SPME:Fiber type: PDMS/DVB | GC–ECD DB608 column (30 m × 0.32 mm ID × 0.50 μm), helium as carrier gas | 1.69–50.4 ng/kg (LOQ) lowest HCB and highest p,p′-DDT | 68–90.1 (9.87–20.9) Note: HCH and DDT isomers: 1.99 to 7.85 μg/kg g. The most predominant compounds | [104]/2014 | |
Multi-residue analysis: 34 organochlorines including α-, β-,γ-, and δ HCH, LND, HCB, etc. | QuEChERS Extraction: 5 g of wet peat soil with 15 mL ACN (or dichloromethane; 4 g MgSO4, 1 g NaCl, 1 g sodium citrate dehydrate, and 0.5 g di-sodium hydrogen citrate sesquihydrate. d-SPE: 150 mg PSA and 950 mg MgSO4. | GC–MS ionization was performed in the electron impact mode and the quadrupole analyzer operated in the SIM mode (selected ion monitoring); DB-VRX 60 m × 0.32 mm ID × 1.80 m column, with helium as carrier gas at a constant flow of 2 mL min−1 | 170.6–384.6 μg/Kg (LOQ) | 82.3–93.9 (4.0–8.5) | [72]/2012 | |
ASE 4 g anhydrous Na2SO4, extraction: dichloromethane at 40 °C and 10 MPa with a pre-heat time of 5 min, followed by a 10 min static extraction and a 100% flush volume | 1151–1808 μg/Kg | 64 (-δ HCH)-85 (10–13) | ||||
14 OCPS: α-, β-,γ-, and δ- HCHs, HCB, o,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDD, aldrindieldrin, endrin, α- and β-endosulfan, and methoxychlor | QuEChERS Extraction: 5 g portion of dried sieved soil and 3 mL of water (hydration step) and 7 mL of ACN and or adding only 20 mL of CAN. 6 g magnesium sulphate (MgSO4), 1.5 g sodium chloride (NaCl), 0.750 g disodium citrate sesquihydrate (Na2HCit 1.5H2O), and 1.5 g sodium citrate dihydrate (Na3Cit 2H2O) Clean-up: 50 mg of PSA, 150 mg of MgSO4, and 50 mg of C18 | GC–ECD, column of 30 m, ZB-XLB (0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 μm), helium as carrier gas at constant flow rate of 1.3 mL/min Confirmatory by GC–MS/MS, SLB-5MS (30 m 0.25 mm, 0.25 m film thickness) column | 11.41 to 79.23 mg/g−1 (LOQs) | 77 to 130% (with hydration step) 20 to 46% (without hydration step), (≤16%) | [121]/2012 | |
α-, β-, γ-, δ-HCHs, p,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDD, o,p′-DDT, and p,p′-DDT | USE-SPE Extraction: hexane/dichloromethane (1:1, v/v) for 60 min SPE cartridges 1 g of florisil; 1 g silica gel and 1 g anhydrous sodium sulfate. | GC–ECD; HP-5 column | 0.05 to 0.20 ng/g. (LOD) | 73.3–96.2 (<10) | [45]/2009 [74]/2010 | |
α-HCH, β-HCH, γ-HCH, δ-HCH, p,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDD, o,p′-DDT, and p,p′-DDT | MAE-MSPE Extraction: ACN; MSPE sorbent: Fe3O4-NH2@MIL-101(Cr) | GC–ECD | 0.15–0.28 ng/g (LOD) | 71.2–102.4 (<10) | [105]/2019 | |
DDT, DDE | 10 g of soil with 25 mL of 90% methanol in water; supernatant diluted to 1:20 in 0.1% of fish gelatin in PBS (FG-PBS) | ELISA | - | 85–95 (0 to 10 ppm) | [137]/2002 | |
49 POPs, between OCPs: DCF, α- and β-endosulfan, p,p′ DDD, p,p′ DDE, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, HCB, ALD, α-HCH, β-HCH, γ-HCH, δ-HCH, etc. | QuEChERS Extraction: 10 g of dried and sieved soil and 10 mL of acetonitrile—2.5% FA, 6 g of MgSO4, and 1.5 g of CH3COONa were shaken and sonicated in an ultrasonic bath. The supernatant was filtered (PET filters). | GC–MS/MS, J&WHP-5MS (Crosslinked 5% phenyl-methyl-polysiloxane, 15 m length, 0.25 mm i.d., and 0.25 μm film thickness, helium as carrier | 0.5–20 ng/g | 70–120 at 0.5–5 ng/g (below 20) | [131]/2002 [116]/2021 | |
α-HCH, β-HCH, γ-HCH, δ-HCH, p,p′-DDD; DDE; DDT, ALD, heptachlor; heptachlor epoxide, α- and β-endosulfan and sulfate endosulfan, etc. | FUSE 1 g of soil with 10 mL of hexane: dichloromethane (75:25) for 1 min in duplicate, and at 60% irradiation power. | GC–MS (EI), HP 5 MS (60 m, 0.25 mm, 0.25 μm) column, helium as carrier gas at flow of 1 mL/min | 2.5 to 15 ng/g | 75.8 (1.63)–101 (2.81) at 25 ng/g and 82.3 (0.18)–109 at the 75 ng/g |
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Tzanetou, E.N.; Karasali, H. A Comprehensive Review of Organochlorine Pesticide Monitoring in Agricultural Soils: The Silent Threat of a Conventional Agricultural Past. Agriculture 2022, 12, 728. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12050728
Tzanetou EN, Karasali H. A Comprehensive Review of Organochlorine Pesticide Monitoring in Agricultural Soils: The Silent Threat of a Conventional Agricultural Past. Agriculture. 2022; 12(5):728. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12050728
Chicago/Turabian StyleTzanetou, Evangelia N., and Helen Karasali. 2022. "A Comprehensive Review of Organochlorine Pesticide Monitoring in Agricultural Soils: The Silent Threat of a Conventional Agricultural Past" Agriculture 12, no. 5: 728. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12050728