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Article

Characterization of Banana Crowns: Microscopic Observations and Macroscopic Cutting Experiments

by
Lei Zhao
1,†,
Chaowei Huang
1,†,
Zhou Yang
1,2,*,
Mohui Jin
1 and
Jieli Duan
1,*
1
College of Engineering, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
2
School of Mechanical Engineering, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Agriculture 2024, 14(10), 1714; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14101714
Submission received: 12 August 2024 / Revised: 15 September 2024 / Accepted: 28 September 2024 / Published: 30 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Technology)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Banana crowns’ intricate vascular systems facilitate nutrient transport for fruit growth and provide mechanical support. Analyzing vascular bundle morphology facilitates understanding of its influence on the banana de-handing process. In this study, we employed X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) scanning and microscopic observation of paraffin sections to characterize the morphological traits of the banana crown’s vascular tissue system and reconstructed its 3D vascular tissue system throughout the banana bunch. Based on the internal tissue characteristics and external morphology, the banana crown is categorized into three regions: the central stalk–crown transition region (CSCTR), the crown expansion region (CER), and the crown–finger transition region (CFTR). Cutting experiments indicated that variations in the cutting strength and specific cutting energy across positions within the banana bunch were insignificant but significantly distinct among the three regions. Specifically, the CER showed a 19.7% reduction in cutting strength and a 15.5% decrease in energy consumption compared to the other regions. This was due to the unique cross-distribution of fibers within the CER, which were primarily parallel to the cutting blade, significantly reducing cutting forces and energy consumption, making the CER the optimal region for cutting. The orientation of vascular bundles relative to the blade is key to optimizing plant cutting mechanics.

1. Introduction

Banana is a widely cultivated fresh fruit in developing countries [1,2]. In 2022, the global harvested area of bananas was estimated to be over 5.9 million ha, with production nearly reaching 135 million tons [3]. After harvesting, bananas undergo numerous commercial processing steps, among which de-handing is a crucial link [4]. Banana de-handing, the laborious task of separating the banana hand (fruit) from the bunch stalk (shown in the top right corner of Figure 1), necessitates mechanization due to its repetitive and rapid pace, which poses health risks to workers [5,6].
Previous studies have focused on the design of banana de-handing machinery and operational parameter impacts [7,8,9]. However, scant attention has been paid to the vascular bundles within the banana crown (the region that connects the banana hand to the bunch stalk), which serve as the primary mechanical support and significantly affect the mechanical properties of cutting. Studying the characteristics of internal vascular bundles can significantly inform the development of de-handing machinery, particularly in the areas of blade design and cutting-position selection.
Various two-dimensional (2D) imaging techniques have been utilized to investigate the correlation between the morphological characteristics and mechanical properties of plant tissues—typically, histological sections [10,11], optical imaging [12,13], and scanning electron microscopy [14,15]. Despite their efficacy in 2D, current methods inadequately capture three-dimensional (3D) morphological features that are crucial for interpreting mechanical properties in complex plants. Regarding internal 3D imaging techniques, X-ray-based Computed Tomography (CT) is a valuable tool [16], utilized for 3D reconstruction of plant organs [17,18,19], quality evaluation [20,21], and other purposes. Our previous research obtained representative 2D cross-sectional images of a banana crown using CT scanning [22]. However, the 2D images of the banana crown lacked the ability to provide a detailed and clear morphological characterization of the vascular bundles. Thus, this study extends prior work by examining 3D morphological characteristics of vascular bundles in different banana crowns, offering a fresh perspective in the banana de-handing field.
This study investigates how morphological characteristics of banana crown vascular bundles affect their mechanical properties during cutting, using a combined 2D/3D characterization and experimental cutting approach. It explores both cutting interaction mechanics and optimal de-handing regions to reduce energy and forces. This provides design references for the development of mechanized banana de-handing devices, aiming to achieve faster, safer, and less costly operations.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Cavendish Banana Preparation

Fresh mature banana bunches (Musa acuminate, AAA group, cv. Brazilian) at the green stage (about 110 days after anthesis) were purchased from the Tianping Wholesale Fruit Market (Guangzhou, China), and bunches of similar maturity and size were randomly selected. They were then immediately transported to the laboratory for subsequent experiments. As shown in Figure 1, the banana hands were labeled from top to bottom as 1st to 7th. The area of the bunch stalk encompassing the banana hand was cut individually, and the banana fingers were carefully removed, resulting in a complete banana crown (Figure 1C) that was used for the CT scanning. Research was conducted on three regions (Figure 1C) divided based on the external morphological characteristics of the banana crown, designated as the central stalk–crown transition region (CSCTR), the crown expansion region (CER), and the crown–finger transition region (CFTR). To preserve the morphological characteristics, the cutting samples were obtained from the middle part of the banana crown with a width of two banana fingers along the longitudinal growth direction. A total of 140 cutting samples were collected from 20 banana bunches, as depicted in Figure 1D.
Agriculture 14 01714 g001
Figure 1. Cavendish banana preparation. (A) Banana bunch and definition of banana hand position. (B) Banana hand before and after de-handing. (C) Three regions of banana crown. (D) All 140 cutting samples.
Figure 1. Cavendish banana preparation. (A) Banana bunch and definition of banana hand position. (B) Banana hand before and after de-handing. (C) Three regions of banana crown. (D) All 140 cutting samples.
Agriculture 14 01714 g001

2.2. X-ray CT Scanning Settings

To visualize the morphological characteristics of vascular bundles in banana crowns, seven intact crowns from a single banana bunch were scanned using an industrial CT X-ray inspection system (X5000; North Star Imaging, Aliso Viejo, CA, USA). The key parameter settings during the CT scanning system running process are shown in Table 1.
The resulting crown data were imported into the system software (EFX-CT; Version 2.2.5.1, North Star Imaging, Aliso Viejo, CA, USA) used to generate 2D crown transverse slice images in a 16-bit gray TIFF format. The 3D models of the vascular bundle morphological characteristics for the crowns were then reconstructed by VG Studio MAX 3.4.0 software (Volume Graphics, Heidelberg, Germany). The vascular bundles in each CT slice image were segmented using an interactive thresholding tool. Given the presence of numerous noise points and non-vascular tissues in the images, segmentation errors were subsequently addressed using a manual segmentation tool. After the segmentations, the vascular bundles were placed in the fixed spatial coordinate system, where they were colored to visualize the variations in the morphological characteristics better.

2.3. Tissue Slice Preparation and Observation

Paraffin-embedded tissue slices were used to visualize banana crown anatomical structures. Tissue samples from the middle of the crown, approximately 5 mm thick, were prepared. Each selected sample was fixed in 50% FAA fixative for 72 h at 4 °C. The fixed sample was washed with distilled water. The washed sample was dehydrated with a graded ethanol series (50%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 100%, and 100%; 2 h each). The dehydrated sample was made transparent via a series of treatments in the following order: 1/2 alcohol + 1/2 xylene for 1 h, 1/3 alcohol + 2/3 xylene for 1 h, and 100% xylene twice, 1 h each time. The transparent sample was infiltrated with wax at different temperatures and times (room temperature for 3 days and in an oven at 37 °C for 1 day, 45 °C for 1 day, and 62 °C for no more than 2 h). Immediately afterward, the sample was transferred to a self-made mold and embedded in new paraffin wax. Next, the embedded sample was transversely sectioned at a thickness of 15 μm with a microtome (RM2125 RTS; Leica, Wetzlar, Germany). Representative slices were mounted on gelatin-coated slides. After drying in an oven at 65 °C for 4 h, these slides were dewaxed and rehydrated through 100% xylene (until the wax was molten), 1/2 xylene + 1/2 alcohol (5 to 10 min), and 100% alcohol (5 min). Then, the slides were stained with 1% safranin O for 48 h, followed by rinsing with 100% ethanol for 1 min, after which they were counter-stained with 0.5% fast green FCF and rinsed in 100% ethanol for 1 min. The stained slides were rendered transparent by 1/2 xylene + 1/2 alcohol and 100% xylene for 5 min, respectively. Finally, all slides were covered with coverslips and sealed with neutral gum.
The prepared slices were automatically scanned by a system consisting of a microscope (BX51; Olympus, Tokyo, Japan) and a motorized stage (ProScan III; Prior Scientific Instruments, Oxford, UK). Images were captured using the CellSens Imaging Software (Ver. 2.1; Olympus, Tokyo, Japan).

2.4. Cutting Experiment Preparation

The experiment apparatus (Figure 2) primarily consisted of a universal material testing machine (WD-E; Grandtry, Guangzhou, China), a load cell (STC-50 Kg; Vishay, Shanghai, China), and a 1.5 mm thick cutting blade. The load cell and blade were fixed to a movable beam of the testing machine, a custom-designed fixture mounted on a linear stage actuator. The cutting samples were fixed in the self-made fixture and aligned perpendicular to the cutting blade. Samples were sectioned at 3 mm intervals longitudinally along the crown growth using a linear actuator, labeled consecutively from 1st to kth. The universal material testing machine’s crossbeam moved at 200 mm/min. Due to varying sample sizes, the number of cuts differed, totaling 810 cuts across 140 samples. The cutting blade was replaced after every 20 samples were cut. The computer recorded force and displacement data during cutting. After each cut, the crown cross-sections were measured. During the experiment (in an air-conditioned room), the ambient temperature was approximately 24 °C to 26 °C, and the humidity ranged from approximately 40% to 60%.
The study quantified banana crown cutting characteristics, encompassing maximum cutting force, total cutting energy, cutting strength, and specific cutting energy. The maximum cutting force and total cutting energy were respectively determined from cutting force data and the area under the force–displacement curve recorded by the universal material testing machine [23]. The cutting strength and specific cutting energy were computed using Equations (1) and (2), respectively. Excluding area effects, cutting strength and specific energy indicate cutting difficulty and energy consumption efficiency.
τc = Fc max/A
Ecs = Ect/A
where Fc max represents the maximum cutting force (N), τc represents the cutting strength (kPa), Ect represents the total cutting energy (mJ), Ecs represents the specifical cutting energy (mJ/mm2), and A represents the cross-sectional area (mm2), measured thrice per cutting position, using the Fiji software (Ver. 1.53c; NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA) [24].
The experimental data on the cutting mechanical properties from the banana crown cutting experiment were analyzed using one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Data significance was tested with Duncan’s multiple range test, analyzed with SPSS (Version 23.0; IBM, Armonk, NY, USA).

3. Results

3.1. Morphological and Structural Characteristics of the Banana Crown

3.1.1. Vascular Bundles of the Banana Crown Visualized through CT Scanning

Using CT scanning, three-dimensional reconstruction models of the internal vascular tissue system in the crown at all positions on the same banana bunch were achieved, as shown in Figure 3. Across varying hand positions within a banana bunch, the vascular tissue system in the banana crown exhibits a consistent pattern of transformation. Initially, it exhibits longitudinal diffusion from the banana bunch stalk towards the crown, subsequently undergoing a complex interplay of longitudinal and transverse orientations, and ultimately extending longitudinally towards the banana fingers.
In the first region extending outward from the banana bunch stalk, the internal vascular tissue system functions not only as a structural support but also as a crucial tissue system for transporting water, inorganic salts, and organic nutrients essential for the growth and development of the banana fruit. The vascular tissue system exhibits a longitudinal growth pattern encircling the banana fruit. So, we designate the transitional region between the central stalk of the banana bunch and the banana crown as the central stalk–crown transition region (CSCTR).
In the subsequent region, the vascular tissue system is characterized by its intertwined distribution, encompassing both the longitudinal and transverse directions. Notably, this region exhibits a more dispersed vascular tissue system, with no distinct fascicular clustering. Being situated centrally within the banana crown, it bridges the bunch stalk and fruit fingers. Consequently, the internal vascular tissue system, particularly the transverse component, plays a pivotal role in distributing nutrients from the CSCTR throughout the crown, thereby nourishing the growth of banana fruits. It also offers robust mechanical support. Based on these morphological characteristics of this middle region, we designate it the crown expansion region (CER). Similarly, the examination of vascular bundles in bamboo internodes [25] and fibers in specific regions at the junction of branching stems of Norway spruce [26] revealed both transverse and longitudinal interwoven distribution patterns.
Banana fingers are typically arranged in two layers around the crown, exhibiting an anti-geotropic growth pattern. During the transition of the vascular tissue system from the CER to the fingers, its distribution undergoes a significant shift, transitioning to a longitudinal alignment and gradually forming bundled aggregations within each banana finger. This vascular tissue system in the transition region is crucial for transporting nutrients to the connected fingers while simultaneously providing mechanical support. Given its distinct role and function compared to the vascular tissue system in the CER, we designate this region as the crown–finger transition region (CFTR).
CT-scanned 3D models of the crown’s vascular tissue system facilitate research on its changing patterns while offering a basis for analyses based on morphological characteristics of distinct regions.

3.1.2. Microscopic Observation of Vascular Tissue in the Banana Crown

The microscopic observations of transverse sections of paraffin-embedded banana crown tissues, depicted in Figure 4, align with the CT scanning-derived variations in the vascular tissue system. Specifically, the vascular tissue system in the CSCTR exhibits a distinct longitudinal fascicular aggregation (Figure 4(b1)). At the junction of the CSCTR and the CER, a clear transition from a longitudinal to a transverse distribution was observed (Figure 4(b2)). In the CER, the horizontal vascular distribution increases, with longitudinal systems dispersed in parenchymal ground tissue (Figure 4(b3)). At the junction of the CER and the CFTR, the longitudinal vascular distribution gradually intensifies centrally, suggesting a shift in distribution patterns (Figure 4(b4)). In the CFTR, longitudinal fascicular aggregation emerges (Figure 4(b5)), becoming more prominent towards the banana finger (Figure 4(b6)).
The histological slice images reveal not only the morphological variations in the vascular tissue system but also its presence near the upper and lower epidermal layers of the banana crown, exhibiting a small morphology and predominant longitudinal distribution in these regions. Compared to the CER and CFTR, the CSCTR’s epidermal layers contain fewer vascular tissue systems, suggesting that they primarily originate from the differentiation of systems in the CER and CFTR, with limited direct contribution from the banana bunch stalk. The numerous vascular tissue systems composed of thick-walled structures like the xylem, phloem, and bundle sheaths offer significant strength and support to the banana crown.
Histological analysis provides both comprehensive insights into banana crown tissue morphology and structure and intuitive explanations for cutting property analysis.

3.2. Cutting Experiment on the Banana Crown

3.2.1. Cutting Characteristics of Different Regions

Drawing on the internal structure analysis of banana crowns in Section 3.1, three distinct regions were identified: the central stalk–crown transition region (CSCTR), the crown expansion region (CER), and the crown–finger transition region (CFTR). Performed after the cutting experiments, the statistical analysis of cutting characteristics across different cross-sections within three distinct regions is presented in Figure 5. The numerical significance analysis of mechanical properties among three banana crown partitions is shown in Table 2.
The maximum cutting force in the banana crown partitions reflects the maximum output required for de-handing, averaging 237.46 N, 223.19 N, and 277.02 N in the CSCTR, CER, and CFTR regions (ANOVA, significant difference). The cutting strength, representing the maximum force’s distribution per unit cross-sectional area, reflects resistance to cutting damage, with higher values indicating stronger material. The averages are 421.88 kPa, 338.61 kPa, and 420.59 kPa across the three regions (ANOVA, significant difference). Both the maximum cutting force and the cutting strength exhibit a trend of first decreasing and then increasing in the three regions of the CSCTR, CER, and CFTR, with the CER region having the lowest values. This suggests that the CER region requires the least force for de-handing and exhibits the weakest resistance to cutting, indicating that it is the most readily cut region.
The total cutting energy denotes the total energy expended during sample cutting, exhibiting an inconsistent trend across the three regions compared to other indicators. Specifically, the values for the CSCTR, CER, and CFTR were 3892.05 mJ, 4270.14 mJ, and 5051.43 mJ, respectively (ANOVA, significant difference). Beyond material cutting resistance, the external shape is a crucial factor influencing total cutting energy [27,28]. A greater volume of the CER compared to the CSCTR necessitates extended cutting time and displacement, ultimately resulting in higher total cutting energy. Hence, the specific cutting energy—per unit cross-sectional area—offers a better explanation of energy variation during banana crown cutting. For the CSCTR, CER, and CFTR, these average values were 6.67 mJ/mm2, 6.41 mJ/mm2, and 7.59 mJ/mm2, respectively (ANOVA, significant difference). This suggests that the CER’s cutting energy utilization is higher, rendering its de-handing process more economical and efficient.
Selecting the region with minimal cutting resistance and minimizing machinery energy consumption are paramount in designing and developing efficient banana de-handing equipment. The CER region emerges as the optimal choice for de-handing operations, backed by a 19.7% drop in cutting strength and a 15.5% drop in the max specific cutting energy in the cutting experiment.

3.2.2. Cutting Characteristics of Different Positions

The experimental outcomes of the banana crown cutting were further analyzed, and a supplemental study of the cutting characteristics at different positions within the banana bunch was conducted. The statistical analysis results are shown in Figure 6, while the numerical significance analysis results are presented in Table 3.
The selection of the internal region of the banana crown has a greater impact on the cutting force than its positional factors, with proper choice being the key to minimizing cutting force. The larger volume of banana crowns necessitates a higher total cutting energy, aligning with the explanation that the CER and the CSCTR within the banana crown account for the volumetric difference in the total cutting energy. The uniformity of the specific cutting energy across banana crown positions suggests consistent energy utilization. Thus, optimizing the cutting region within each crown is pivotal for enhancing energy efficiency.
The maximum cutting force remained largely consistent across positions (ANOVA, non-significant difference), with a 5.99% variation between the highest (1st position, 243.42 N) and lowest (7th position, 228.84 N) averages. As the banana hand diminishes from the 1st to 7th position, the supporting crown volume (Figure 3) also decreases. Consequently, from the 1st to 7th position, as the cutting section reduces, the cutting strength incrementally increases under similar maximum cutting forces. This resulted in a 16.63% difference between the minimum (1st position, 346.10 kPa) and maximum (7th position, 415.15 kPa) cutting strengths (ANOVA, significant difference). Regarding the total cutting energy, a gradual decline was observed across various positions (ANOVA, significant difference). Specifically, the disparity between the highest (2nd position, 4722.45 mJ) and lowest (7th position, 3847.94 mJ) energies was 18.51%. In contrast, the specific cutting energy exhibited a relatively stable trend, neutralizing the impact of volume. This was evidenced by a mere 4.81% difference between the minimum (1st position, 6.53 mJ/mm2) and maximum (7th position, 6.86 mJ/mm2) values (ANOVA, non-significant difference).

4. Discussion

When analyzing cutting mechanical properties, cutting experiments are typically conducted in orientations both parallel and perpendicular to the crop stem’s fiber direction. Shi et al. demonstrated that when the knife loading was parallel to the fiber direction in Artemisia selengensis [29], the maximum cutting force and total energy were notably lower than when perpendicular. Liu et al. concurred with similar findings on Switchgrass and Miscanthus stems [30].
In this study, the internal banana crown cutting mechanisms exhibited similarities. Utilizing 3D morphological models of the vascular tissue system reconstructed from CT scans at seven locations within banana crowns, we found that the directions of interaction between the cutting blade and the vascular tissue system during the cutting process can be broadly categorized into two types. Specifically, in the CSCTR and the CFTR, the loading direction of the blade is primarily perpendicular to the direction of the vascular tissue system. In contrast, within the CER, the blade’s loading direction is primarily parallel to the vascular tissue system’s orientation. This phenomenon accounts for the lower maximum cutting force and specific cutting energy, rendering the CER optimal for de-handing operations.
Apart from the four key cutting properties—maximum force, strength, total energy, and specific energy—explored in this study, shear modulus is commonly investigated in crop stalk research [31,32]. However, the irregular shape of the banana crown complicates experimental efforts. Nonetheless, the four indicators in this study effectively capture the cutting difficulty and energy variations. Given the crowns’ size and CT scanning’s resolution limitations, this research adopted a combined analytical and experimental approach. Future work will further investigate the interplay between tissue features and cutting properties.

5. Conclusions

To elucidate the interaction between banana crown vascular bundles and cutting blades and identify the optimal mechanized de-handing regions, X-ray CT scanning and microscopic examination of paraffin sections characterized the vascular tissue system, subsequently reconstructing its 3D vascular architecture throughout the entire banana bunch. The morphological expressions of banana crown vascular bundles corresponding to different positions in the banana bunch are consistent, whereas within the banana crown, three distinct regions can be identified: the central stalk–crown transition region (CSCTR), the crown expansion region (CER), and the crown–finger transition region (CFTR). The CER stands out with its exceptional vascular tissues, which exhibit a transverse–longitudinal interwoven pattern with a scattered distribution. Notably, during the cutting experiment, the CER exhibited a marked decrease of 19.7% in cutting strength and 15.5% in energy consumption compared to the other regions. The force reduction mechanism arises from the transition from a vertical to a more parallel relationship between the fiber and the cutting blade. Aligning the cutting plane as parallel as possible to plant fibers is crucial for optimizing cutting performance. Thus, targeting the CER as the mechanized banana de-handing region minimizes cutting force and energy consumption while boosting cutting success.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/agriculture14101714/s1, Video S1: Three-dimensional reconstruction of inner vascular bundle of banana crown.

Author Contributions

L.Z.: Methodology, Software, Investigation, Visualization, Writing—original draft. C.H.: Software, Investigation, Visualization, Writing—original draft. Z.Y.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation. M.J.: Conceptualization, Methodology. J.D.: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 32271996), the China Agriculture Research System of MOF and MARA (Grant No. CARS-31-11), and the open competition program of top ten critical priorities of Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation for the 14th Five-Year Plan of Guangdong Province(No. 2023SDZG03).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Figure 2. Overview of cutting experiment and schematic of cross-sections of cut samples.
Figure 2. Overview of cutting experiment and schematic of cross-sections of cut samples.
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Figure 3. All crowns of a banana bunch and 3D reconstructions of internal vascular bundles. Different colors used solely for easier differentiation; they have no special meanings. An intuitive 3D reconstruction video is available in Supplementary Materials.
Figure 3. All crowns of a banana bunch and 3D reconstructions of internal vascular bundles. Different colors used solely for easier differentiation; they have no special meanings. An intuitive 3D reconstruction video is available in Supplementary Materials.
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Figure 4. Tissue section imaging of the banana crown. (a) Longitudinal section of the banana crown and illustration of the various sampling positions for transverse slicing. (b) Vascular tissue system in different transverse sections. (c) Primary structural components of the vascular tissue systems. The xylem and bundle sheath were stained red by safranin solution, while the phloem was stained green by fast green FCF solution.
Figure 4. Tissue section imaging of the banana crown. (a) Longitudinal section of the banana crown and illustration of the various sampling positions for transverse slicing. (b) Vascular tissue system in different transverse sections. (c) Primary structural components of the vascular tissue systems. The xylem and bundle sheath were stained red by safranin solution, while the phloem was stained green by fast green FCF solution.
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Figure 5. Statistical analysis of the mechanical properties in different banana crown regions.
Figure 5. Statistical analysis of the mechanical properties in different banana crown regions.
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Figure 6. Statistical analysis of the crown mechanical properties in different banana positions.
Figure 6. Statistical analysis of the crown mechanical properties in different banana positions.
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Table 1. CT scanning parameters for different banana crowns.
Table 1. CT scanning parameters for different banana crowns.
Setting ParametersPosition
1st2nd3rd4th5th6th7th
Voltage (kV)150150150150150150150
Current (μA)160160160160160160160
Pixel pitch (μm)200200200200200200200
Total rotation (°)360360360360360360360
Rotation step (°)1/61/61/61/61/61/61/6
FDD/FOD (mm/mm)700/136700/125700/125700/125700/105700/105700/105
Resolution (μm)3935.835.835.8303030
Scanned time (h)3.432.62.22.222
Number of images2385271025792968275124092503
FDD: Distance from tube to detector. FOD: Distance from tube to object.
Table 2. Variance analysis of the crown mechanical properties in different banana crown regions.
Table 2. Variance analysis of the crown mechanical properties in different banana crown regions.
SourceSum of SquaresdfMean SquareFSig.
Maximum Cutting ForceBG345,215.2842172,607.642113.935<0.001
WG1,224,088.6098081514.961
Total1,569,303.893810
Cutting StrengthBG1,344,916.9842672,458.492140.664<0.001
WG3,862,736.0538084780.614
Total5,207,653.037810
Total Cutting EnergyBG118,310,169.649259,155,084.82470.797<0.001
WG675,131,906.719808835,559.290
Total793,442,076.368810
Specific Cutting EnergyBG167.461283.73191.491<0.001
WG739.4628080.915
Total906.924810
df: degree of freedom; BG: between groups; WG: within groups. Significance ≤ 0.05: significant difference.
Table 3. Variance analysis of the crown mechanical properties in different banana positions.
Table 3. Variance analysis of the crown mechanical properties in different banana positions.
SourceSum of SquaresdfMean SquareFSig.
Maximum Cutting ForceBG22,141.24363690.2071.9180.075
WG1,547,162.6508041924.332
Total1,569,303.893810
Cutting StrengthBG467,125.762677,854.29413.204<0.001
WG4,740,527.2758045896.178
Total5,207,653.037810
Total Cutting EnergyBG68,810,836.508611,468,472.75112.725<0.001
WG724,631,239.860804901,282.637
Total793,442,076.368810
Specific Cutting EnergyBG12.84762.1411.9260.074
WG894.0768041.112
Total906.924810
df: degree of freedom; BG: between groups; WG: within groups. Significance > 0.05: non-significant difference; significance ≤ 0.05: significant difference.
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Zhao, L.; Huang, C.; Yang, Z.; Jin, M.; Duan, J. Characterization of Banana Crowns: Microscopic Observations and Macroscopic Cutting Experiments. Agriculture 2024, 14, 1714. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14101714

AMA Style

Zhao L, Huang C, Yang Z, Jin M, Duan J. Characterization of Banana Crowns: Microscopic Observations and Macroscopic Cutting Experiments. Agriculture. 2024; 14(10):1714. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14101714

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhao, Lei, Chaowei Huang, Zhou Yang, Mohui Jin, and Jieli Duan. 2024. "Characterization of Banana Crowns: Microscopic Observations and Macroscopic Cutting Experiments" Agriculture 14, no. 10: 1714. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14101714

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