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Article

Influence of Tea Polyphenols, Chitosan, and Melatonin as the Eco-Friendly Post-Harvest Treatments on the Vase Life of the Cut Chrysanthemum ‘Pingpong’ Group

by
Ziyi Yu
†,
Shuangda Li
† and
Yan Hong
*
Beijing Key Laboratory of Ornamental Plants Germplasm Innovation & Molecular Breeding, National Engineering Research Center for Floriculture, Beijing Laboratory of Urban and Rural Ecological Environment, Key Laboratory of Genetics and Breeding in Forest Trees and Ornamental Plants of Education Ministry, School of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Agriculture 2024, 14(9), 1507; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14091507
Submission received: 22 July 2024 / Revised: 29 August 2024 / Accepted: 29 August 2024 / Published: 2 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Postharvest Physiology and Technology of Horticultural Crops—2nd Edition)
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Abstract

:
Vase life is a decisive measure of the marketability of post-harvest physiology in cut flowers. In the process of petal senescence, the cut chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum × morifolium) ‘Pingpong’ group develops severe capitulum collapse which manifests as wilting and browning, leading to shorter vase life. Melatonin (MT), tea polyphenols (TPs), and chitosan (CT) are natural alternatives to chemical compounds with proven preservation effects. In this study, the possibility of mitigating capitulum collapse using the preservation solutions of these three eco-friendly ingredients was investigated on four varieties from the ‘Pingpong’ group, aiming to delay the senescence process. The effects on vase life of 0.02/0.04 mmol·L−1 MT, 200/400 mg·L−1 TPs, and 0.10/0.20 g·L−1 CT were, respectively, assessed with the basis of 20 g·L−1 sucrose and 250 mg·L−1 citric acid. The yellow and white varieties tend to have a longer vase life compared with the green and pink varieties. Compared to the control with only base ingredients, the greatest delay in capitulum collapse was observed with 0.04 mmol·L−1 MT in the yellow variety, maximizing the vase life to 13.4 days. MT maintained the best ornamental quality of the capitulum by decelerating fresh weight and flower diameter loss in terms of all varieties. TPs significantly increased flower diameter to improve vase life up to four more days. However, CT caused significant negative effects on vase life, with severe loss of both flower diameter and fresh weight. Therefore, the application of 0.04 mmol·L−1 MT and 200 mg·L−1 TPs was suggested to enhance the marketability of cut ‘Pingpong’, which highlighted the eco-friendly potential of post-harvest treatments.

1. Introduction

The chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum × morifolium) is one of the major cut flowers on the international market; after roses, it is the second-largest economy in the international trade of cut flowers [1]. As one of the top ten traditional Chinese flowers, the chrysanthemum is resourceful in variety with a long-standing history of cultivation, accounting for about 30% of the cut-flower market in China [2]. Cut-chrysanthemum products are categorized into standard and spray chrysanthemum [3]. The diversity of shapes, colors, and sizes makes the spray highly popular for consumers [4], with the pompon type strongly complementing the spray chrysanthemums by its higher doubling and larger size. The pompon type features numerous whorls of ray florets arranged to radiate towards the center, with fewer or no tubular florets [5]. According to the market research of three cut-flower retail segments in Beijing (Shenghua Honglin Market, Jinyuan Flower Market, and Chaolaichun Flower Market), there is positive commercial potential for the varieties from the ‘Pingpong’ group as they account for a substantial sales volume in chrysanthemums, ranging from 10.00% to 36.36%, which are popular for their attractively spherical shape. However, compared with other chrysanthemum varieties, they exhibit significant capitulum collapse, which leads to negative influences on vase life. To our knowledge, this study is the first report on the post-harvest senescence of the cut chrysanthemum ‘Pingpong’ group to reveal the reason for their preservation problem based on the most recent research in the field.
Vase life, i.e., the duration of the ornamental period (usually 5–8 days), essentially determines the marketability of cut flowers [6], which means maintaining their perfect quality as much as possible after harvest to postpone senescence [7]. Flower shape is one of the most intuitive qualities of cut flowers. However, capitulum collapse occurs during the vase life of the ‘Pingpong’ group, where the centripetal distribution is no longer preserved, while the ray florets dry out and crumple up. The pre-experiment of this study was conducted by preserving the white ‘Pingpong’ variety in fresh water to observe its performance at several stages of senescence. The vase life is expressed in four stages (Figure 1). Firstly, it continues to bloom after a certain number of days of novelty. Then, the senescence process starts with the wilting and browning of the ray florets until the capitulum collapses, becoming no longer ornamental. Petal senescence is a programmed and irreversible process [8] with a sophisticated mechanism. Delaying this physiology by various preservative treatments is significant for the cut-flower industry. Climatic factors, storage conditions, management practices, and packaging techniques at pre- and post-harvest stages affect product quality [9]. Research on preservative solution composition to optimize efficacy has emerged as a current area of concentration in cut-flower issues [2]. Correspondingly, a broad range of synthesized products (e.g., silver thiosulphate, hydroquinone, 8-hydroxyquinoline sulfate, silver nitrate, amino-oxyacetic acid, calcium dichloride, cobalt chloride, aluminum sulfate, chlorine dioxide, and benzyl adenine) have been brought into the study arena [10]. Preservative solutions mainly serve the functions of moisture amelioration, microbial inhibition, antioxidant, and nutrient supplementation [11].
In cut chrysanthemums, prioritizing the improvement of water absorption and retention capacity is a widely endorsed strategy [6]. In recent years, natural alternatives to traditional chemicals have attracted attention in this context for their friendly environmental impacts, lack of health hazards, and lower regulatory costs [12]. A few natural ingredients have been evidenced to prolong the vase life of cut chrysanthemums, such as 250 g·L−1 leaf extract from basil (Ocimum basilicum) and 5 mg·L−1, 500 mg·L−1, and 250 mg·L−1 oil products from Ascophyllum nodosum, thyme (Thymeus vulgaris), and clove (Syzygium aromaticum), respectively [1,13,14]. Developing effective and eco-friendly preservation ingredients to maintain flower shape, even preventing the capitulum collapse of the ‘Pingpong’ group, is a fundamental goal of this study. Melatonin (MT) is an antioxidant and photosynthetically protective agent found in almost all higher plants [15], which is involved in regulating adaptation to diverse biotic or abiotic stresses [16]. Application of exogenous MT proved to positively affect the post-harvest quality of cut anthuriums (Anthurium andraeanum cv. Sirion), cut carnations (Dianthus caryophyllus), and cut peonies (Paeonia lactiflora) [17,18,19]. Tea polyphenols (TPs) are flavanol plant polyphenols exhibiting potential in preservation and wellness with antioxidant and antimicrobial activities [20,21]. Du et al. proved that their applications considerably prolonged the vase life of the cut gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii) [22]. Chitosan (CT) is a polymer of natural polysaccharides that has been extensively applied in the preservation of horticultural products since the 1980s [23], where its solution proved a significant senescence delay of seven days in cut carnations [24]. There is the task of applying various preservative treatments to investigate the effect on several traits of the cut chrysanthemum ‘Pingpong’ group, especially with attention to differences between varieties. This study aims to test and prove that eco-friendly preservation like MT, TPs, and CT could delay the capitulum collapse of varieties from the ‘Pingpong’ group.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Materials

Four batches of fresh-cut ‘Pingpong’ varieties, free from pests and diseases and with low openness and different colors, were harvested at 7:30 on 26th November 2023 from the nursery of Yunnan Red Sun Flower Company in Chenggong District, Kunming, Yunnan Province, China. Flowers in the same batch were of uniform specification, bundled in plastic film and paper, with the heads and stems alternately arranged in breathable cardboard boxes with ice packs to maintain a low temperature during transport. Upon arrival at the laboratory, the materials were immediately rehydrated to minimize transport-related quality losses.
After 2 h of re-hydration, the materials under fresh conditions presented intact and bright petals and upturned leaves. The selected samples were immersed in the water, measured at the upper 20 cm, and sheared at 45°. Then, the lower leaves were removed, and the top two single leaves were retained for each sample. The exhibitive flowers are shown in Figure 2.

2.2. Treatments

All reagents were purchased from Shanghai Yuanye Bio-Technology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China, containing 99% MT (CAS #73-31-4), deacetylated 95% CT (CAS #9012-76-4), 98% TPs (CAS #384650-60-2), 98% sucrose (CAS #57-50-1), and 99.5% citric acid (CAS #77-92-9). The 12 g·L−1 TP master solution was prepared with distilled water. A total of 2.787 mg of MT was dissolved in 600 μL of ethanol to generate MT master solution 1, and another 5.574 mg of MT was dissolved in 600 μL of ethanol to generate MT master solution 2.
The base solution consisted of 20 g·L−1 sucrose and 250 mg·L−1 citric acid, providing acidic and glycogenous conditions. Two concentrations were designed for each experimental ingredient based on the research on the concentration that proved to be positive in the previous literature (Table 1).
Seven treatments were designed. Except for the control treatment (CK), the other treatments included the addition of 200 mg·L−1 TPs (TP1), 400 mg·L−1 TPs (TP2), 0.10 g·L−1 CT (CT1), 0.20 g·L−1 CT (CT2), 0.02 mmol·L−1 MT (MT1), and 0.04 mmol·L−1 MT (MT2), respectively. Each treatment was biologically replicated five times.
The 2 L glass vase was rinsed with a small amount of distilled water, then the base reagents and experimental master solutions were added according to Table 2. The volume was adjusted to 600 mL using distilled water, then the solution was stirred well with a glass rod and covered with cling film to prevent the evaporation of the preservation solutions. Five holes were created in the film with scissors, and the processed samples were inserted. There were five flowers in each vase for replication.
The samples were kept at a room temperature of 22.9 ± 1 °C, with a relative humidity of 26 ± 5%, a photoperiod of 12 h, and a light intensity of 140 ± 5 Lx. Non-destructive measurements were taken every 24 h on 140 samples, including pH, flower diameter, fresh weight, water balance, and vase life assessment. Each measurement was replicated three times.

2.3. Vase Life

The senescence stage of each sample was assessed daily and recorded as shown in Figure 1. After reaching S4, the sample was considered to have reached capitulum collapse (no ornamental value) when more than half of its petals were wilted and brown. When all five samples in a treatment reached capitulum collapse, the observation and record of this treatment was ended. The number of days from the start of the experiment to the loss of ornamental value defined the vase life. The senescence stage of each treatment was expressed as S ± SE for each day during the vase life.

2.4. Flower Diameter (FD)

FD was the diameter of the sample’s capitulum measured daily, calculated as the average of two vertically intersecting diameters. The initial FD was recorded as D(t = 1). The mean FD for each treatment over the vase life was presented as d ± SE. The relative flower diameter, representing the rate of change from D(t = 1), was calculated as D% = d/D(t = 1) − 1.

2.5. Fresh Weight (FW) and Water Balance (WB)

Firstly, the total weight of the vase for each treatment with preservation solution and flowers was measured. The difference between this measurement and the previous day’s measurement was the daily water loss, denoted as W(a).
The five flowers were removed from the vase, and the weight of each flower was measured at the first minute, which was defined as FW. The initial FW was recorded as W(t = 1). The mean FW for each treatment over the vase life was presented as w ± SE. The relative FW, indicating the rate of change from W(t = 1), was calculated as W% = w/W(t = 1) − 1.
Then, the preservation solution and vase were weighed within 10 min of taking out the flowers. The difference from the previous day’s weight was the daily water uptake, denoted as W(b). The WB of the treatment was calculated as the difference between daily water uptake and daily water loss, expressed as WB = W(b) − W(a). The sum of WB over the vase life represented the net water uptake of the treatment.
The flowers were immediately inserted back after daily measurements.

2.6. Statistical Analysis

The experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and data description were performed with SPSS software v.28.0 for Windows. Means ± SE values were compared by the least significant difference (LSD) test at p < 0.05.
Four varieties with different colors (yellow, white, green, and pink) were subjected to Z-score normalization and principal component analysis (PCA) using SPSS version 27 based on four traits (vase life, FD, FW, and WB) under the seven treatments (CK, TP1, TP2, CT1, CT2, MT1, and MT2).

3. Results

3.1. Vase Life

As indicated in Table 3, vase life was significantly (p < 0.001) affected by the different treatments. In the yellow variety, the rank of vase life under each treatment was MT2 > TP1 > MT1 > TP2 > CK > CT2 > CT1; the white variety ranked as MT2 > MT1 > TP1 > TP2 > CK > CT2 > CT1; the green variety ranked as MT2 > MT1 > TP1 > TP2 = CK > CT2 > CT1; the pink variety ranked as MT2 > TP1 = TP2 > MT1 > CK > CT2 > CT1.
As a result, the materials under MT and TPs demonstrated significantly longer vase life compared to CK. Conversely, the vase life under CT treatment was shorter. The optimal dose for delaying senescence was 0.04 mmol·L−1 MT with an effect of 114.29–183.33%, most pronounced in the pink variety. Regarding TPs, the 200 mg·L−1 dose performed better than 400 mg·L−1. In contrast, CT impacted negatively on the quality. Taking the white variety as an example as its large and pale capitulum is easy to observe, the effects of different treatments on the senescence process, respectively, can be exhibited in the pictures during the vase life (Figure 3).
Incorporating the senescence iterations of the yellow, white, green, and pink varieties (Table 4), it was concluded that TPs significantly extended the number of days at stage S2, indicating that the growth period increased. As for the white variety, 200 mg·L−1 TPs prolonged S2 by four days and 400 mg·L−1 TPs by three days compared to CK. S1 was significantly extended under MT, such as from two to five days for the white variety, indicating that MT retarded further growth or flowering. MT had the effect of further prolonging S2 except in the green variety, where 0.02 mmol·L−1 and 0.04 mmol·L−1 increased by two and one day(s), respectively, for the white variety.

3.2. FD

The FD of each CK showed a consistent pattern during the vase life (Figure 4), whereby D% tended to increase and then dropped to a negative value. In the case of the CK in the white variety, petal blooming resulted in an increase in FD from day 1 to day 3. From day 3 onwards, their FD decreased until reaching a minus state on day 5. There were differences in the range of FD variation in CK for each variety (Figure 5): 4.72% in the yellow variety, 16.01% in the white variety, 7.28% in the green variety, and 12.03% in the pink variety.
The FD of the samples was significantly (p < 0.05) affected by the different treatments during the vase life. Compared with CK, except for TP2 in the yellow variety, TPs greatly decelerated the loss of flower shape. Of these, the samples in TP1 displayed the largest FD among the experimental treatments. This dose resulted in a significant acceleration in FD increase at the beginning of the vase life, advancing the arrival of the peaks in the white, green, and pink varieties. In the white variety, for example, the CK reached a maximum FD of 10.78% ± 0.16 cm on day 3, while TP1 reached a maximum of 11.50% ± 0.23 cm on day 2. TPs and MT caused a fluctuating downward trend in FD after the first peak, meaning that there were between one and three occasions when it appeared to rise again. In contrast, CT led to a more rapid and severe loss of flower shape, skipping the S2 of FD increasing and accelerating the reduction directly from S1 to S3 and S4 (Table 5).

3.3. FW and WB

The FW under various treatments was characterized by significant differences (p < 0.001) during the vase life (Table 6). As an example of the FW changing, the W% in the white variety under CK first peaked at 7.44% ± 0.26 after one day of increase and then declined to a minimum of −37.36% ± 0.33 on the eighth day. Correspondingly, the WB of this treatment presented positive values first and then turned negative after the fourth day. Both TPs and MT significantly delayed and reduced the FW loss, which remained relatively stable for the first six to seven days. Meanwhile, the WB was held at ±2.00 mg per stem. Among them, TPs decreased the WB sharply on the ninth day. With the MT2 treatment, the point of steep fall was the 10th day. In comparison with other treatments, CT directly hastened the FW reduction, which advanced the inflection point of senescence physiology, with the WB remaining below zero (Figure 6).
In the yellow variety, the W% of all treatments during the vase life ranked as MT2 > CK > MT1 > TP1 > TP2 > CT1 > CT2; only MT2 performed better than CK. In the white variety, the result ranked as TP1 > TP2 > MT2 > MT1 > CK > CT2 > CT1, while all TPs and MT were ahead of CK. In the green variety, the rank was CK > TP1 > MT1 > MT2 > TP2 > CT1 > CT2 without any treatments superior to CK. As for the pink variety, the result indicated MT2 > TP1 > TP2 > CK > MT1 > CT1 > CT2. The FW loss of CT was significantly greater than CK as the fastest senescence.

3.4. Differences among Varieties

The PCA indicated the distribution of the yellow, white, green, and pink varieties on the two principal components PC1 and PC2. PC1 explained 63.8% of the variance, which best distinguished the performance of samples mainly with the FW and FD traits contributing. Both traits showed a strong positive correlation with vase life. PC2, on the other hand, accounted for 20.9% and showed a dominant negative correlation with WB. In total, these two principal components explained 84.7% of the statistical variance, indicating that they captured the main variability of the data well. The spatial distribution along the two principal components proved the differences between varieties and revealed the individual contribution of various traits.
The yellow and white varieties illustrated significant differences in PC2 composition. The yellow variety scored higher on the PC2 axis, indicating a lower WB value. Conversely, the white variety performed better on the WB value. These two varieties showed a balanced distribution on the PC1 axis, suggesting that the treatments demonstrated diverse effects on FD and FW.
The performance of the green and pink varieties was closer to each other, which was distributed around the zero point of the PC2 axis, indicating average scores on WB. Compared to other varieties, the green and pink varieties were relatively rightward on PC1, indicating a weaker performance of the vase life with relatively low FD and FW values. As shown in Figure 5, the yellow and white varieties featured larger, heavier, and fuller capitula, while the capitula of the pink and green varieties were smaller, lighter, and flattened (Figure 7).

4. Discussion

Plants remain actively metabolized after detachment from the parent [2], including transpiration, respiration, and oxidation. There is an attendant risk of water stress, carbohydrate depletion, and oxidative stress. Cut flowers senesce under multiple pressures, accelerated by stem obstruction, bacterial infection, and elevated ethylene production. Chrysanthemums are classified as ethylene-insensitive cut flowers deficient in 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid [30], with few ethylene releases from the capitulum during senescence [31]. So, the physiology of senescence is virtually unaffected by the presence of ethylene. Oxidative stress due to reactive oxygen species accumulation is considered to be an early sign of petal senescence in cut flowers [32], disrupting protein and membrane integrity [2]. At this point, enzyme activities including superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase decreased, which imbalanced the free radicals and accelerated the disruption of the cellular physiological state of cut flowers [33]. In addition, cut chrysanthemums are sensitive to moisture and carbohydrate changes [2]. Compared to other chrysanthemum varieties, the ‘Pingpong’ group with larger petal volume demands more water and glycogen in the post-harvest period. On one hand, several circumstances impede water conduction in post-harvest plants, such as blockage of the xylem of stems by microorganisms [34], biochemical deposition, or air embolism [35]. Severe vascular blockage occurs at the cutting wound in response to a combination of peroxidase, phenol oxidase, lignin, and pectin [33]. In these cases, water and nutrients in the preservation solution are unable to be transported to the leaves or petals [4]. The gradual decrease in water uptake is accompanied by a continuous water loss under evapotranspiration, which ultimately leads to a water imbalance. In this context, the leaves of cut chrysanthemums are susceptible to browning or wilting before the petals [36], which was also observed at stage S2 in this study. Apart from storing water, leaves serve a crucial function in transporting carbohydrates. For example, the soluble carbohydrate content was higher in the petals of cut roses with leaves than those without leaves [37], even after treatment with glucose [7]. On the other hand, carbohydrates are substrates for plant respiration, mainly storing energy, and also act as reactive oxygen scavengers [11]. Cut flowers gradually accumulate polysaccharides during their development, which degrade rapidly when they reach anthesis, thereby creating an osmotic potential that leads to cellular water influx to enable bloom [38]. Elevated respiration rates in cut flowers after isolation trigger the risk of carbohydrates being depleted [7], affecting bud opening.
In this study, during the early period of the vase life, the WB of the samples was in a state of water absorption. The expansion pressure of the raised petal cells led to ray florets elongation and unfolding, which means FD continuously enlarged. At the same time, FW increases as water and nutrients are absorbed from the preservation solution. Following stem blockage and leaf senescence, the absorption diminished, and FW began a steady decline. Upon exposure to dehydration, end scorch and expansion pressure decrease resulted in an FD reduction and a change in orientation of the ray florets. Such ornamental quality damage persists until the capitulum collapses.

4.1. Influence of MT on Capitulum Collapse during the Post-Harvest Period

MT (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine), an indole heterocyclic, is found widely present in plant tissues [39]. It is strongly implicated in the physiological processes of plant growth, such as regulation of seed germination, root development, flowering, photosynthesis, leaf senescence, and adaptation promoting abiotic stresses [40,41]. The senescence of cut flowers has been proven to be influenced by endogenous MT, whose levels undergo a decline at the later stages of the vase life [18]. As a potent antioxidant, the application of exogenous MT stimulates the activity of non-enzymatic antioxidants and enzyme systems involved in oxidized protein repair, thereby scavenging excess reactive oxygen in the post-harvest plants [19]. It also promotes endogenous MT production [42]. Studies on the enhancement of the quality of fruits and vegetables during post-harvest storage have highlighted the preservation function of MT, such as the maintenance of the color of papayas (Carica papaya) and the inhibition of chlorophyll degradation in pak choi (Brassica rapa var. chinensis) [43,44]. However, little information is available on the application of MT in the preservation of cut flowers. Aghdam et al. investigated the effect of exogenous melatonin on chilling acclimatization by delaying the browning of the red spathe during cold storage of cut anthuriums [17]. Lezoul et al. studied the effect of MT on the quality of cut carnations, where a dose of 0.1 mM prolonged the vase life by 10 days [18]. Wang et al. demonstrated that exogenous MT was also beneficial in delaying senescence in cut peonies, especially at 50 μmol·L−1, where a significant reduction in relative conductance occurred [19].
In this study, MT treatment resulted in longer WB stabilization, delayed the peak of net water loss by three to four days, and elevated FW levels. Regarding the experiments on cut carnations, it is hypothesized that exogenous MT provided additional energy to the ‘Pingpong’ group, which helped maintain the cellular energy state and reduced respiratory demand [18]. In addition, MT reinforces ATP supply in cut-flower cells to facilitate mitochondrial electron delivery, contributing to the maintenance of membrane stability to protect water and nutrient transport [45]. It is presumed that the water relation in the ‘Pingpong’ group was consequently modified, and the consumption of carbohydrates was attenuated, presenting a remarkable retardation of FD loss.

4.2. Influence of TPs on Capitulum Collapse during the Post-Harvest Period

Plant polyphenols are a class of secondary metabolites with a polyphenolic structure widely distributed in plants, mainly flowers, bark, roots, leaves, and fruits. Tea, coffee, fruits, vegetables, and grains contribute to plentiful sources of polyphenols [21]. TPs are flavanol subclasses extracted from the leaves of the tea tree (Camellia sinensis) [46], representing the most widely researched and applied plant polyphenols [20], with diverse biological activities like antioxidant, antibacterial, cancer mitigation [47], and cardiovascular disease prevention properties [46]. TPs abstract hydrogen atoms from lipids and proteins to generate more stable lipid derivatives and phenolic oxygen radicals, thus lessening free radical damage [20] to achieve antioxidant effects. Further, TPs are equipped with antimicrobial activity. They inhibit microbial growth by altering the membrane permeability of target cells and disrupting cell wall integrity [21]. In the food industry, TPs act as a nutritional fortifier [48] and as a natural alternative to chemicals for the preservation of meat and aquatic products [49]. There is also related research in the field of vegetables and fruits, such as green bell peppers (Capsicum annuum), strawberries (Fragaria × ananassa), beet (Beta vulgaris) leaves, peaches (Prunus persica), and Chinese winter jujubes (Ziziphus jujube cv. Dongzao) [50,51,52,53,54]. Guan et al. demonstrated that TPs suppressed the browning of cut potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) by modulating ROS metabolism, during which the activities of several antioxidant enzymes were increased [48]. Less research has been conducted on its refinement to cut-flower preservation. Du et al. significantly extended the vase life of cut gerberas using exogenous TP application, with the best dose at 400 mg·L−1 [22]. Wu et al. demonstrated that 2.0 g·L−1 of green tea extract delayed quality loss in cut roses (Rosa hybrida) for up to 10 days, and the decrease in anthocyanin concentration was significantly slowed down compared to the control [55].
In this study, TP treatment significantly promoted further flowering by increasing the peak FD by 2.16%–4.33%, whose trend was consistent with the results of Li et al.’s experiments on cut peonies (Paeonia lactiflora) [56]. Aquaporin genes (AQPs) are instrumental in mediating transmembrane water transport with high permeability [26]. Referring to Li et al., it was reported that the application of exogenous polyphenols enhanced AQP activity in cut peonies during post-harvest preservation [56], which facilitated water uptake to stabilize the cell membranes. It is assumed that TPs likewise enhance the bloom of the ‘Pingpong’ group by stronger water uptake. At the same time, bacterial infestation at the end of the stem is inhibited, ensuring that water and nutrients are channeled to the petals.

4.3. Influence of CT on Capitulum Collapse during the Post-Harvest Period

CT, an aminopolysaccharide, is the second most commonly consumed natural polymer [57], with an estimated biosynthesis of 1 billion tonnes per year [58]. Its parent compound, chitin, is widely derived from the shells of chitinous crustaceans, the cuticle of insects, and the cell walls of fungi, etc. [59], and it is therefore considered to be a powerful renewable biological resource [60]. Due to the attraction of its positively charged amine groups to the cell membranes of negatively charged microorganisms, which in turn leads to the leakage of microbial proteins and other intracellular components [61], CT inhibits disease-causing bacteria, fungi, and mold [62]. There are a plethora of applications for its derivatives including food packaging, textiles, cosmetics, biotechnology, wastewater treatment, pharmaceuticals, gene therapy, and agriculture [63]. Since the 1980s, CT has exhibited preservation potential as an edible coating for horticultural products in seeds, leaves, fruits, and vegetables to reduce decay, disease, and microbial attack [23]. Bañuelos et al. investigated the preservative effect of CT on the post-harvest physiology of Heliconia bihai cv. Halloween, proving that the stalk-forming method extended their vase life by seven to ten days [64]. However, regarding the low solubility of CT severely limiting its further application, its oligomeric derivatives (~7 dp) have been synthesized by chemical modification [61]. These oligomers are still biologically active, allowing a broader application [57]. Soluble CT is a relatively new ingredient for cut-flower preservation solution, with only Solgi demonstrating that CT applied to cut carnations was able to extend their vase life by up to seven days [24].
However, in contrast, both 0.10 g·L−1 and 0.20 g·L−1 CT accelerated the capitulum collapse of the ‘Pingpong’ group with severe damage to FW. Commercially processed CT has high-molecular-weight molecules [65], and upon water solubilization, some of them are taken up by the stalk cells [23], which leads to clogging of the xylem.

4.4. Differences in the Vase Life among Varieties during the Post-Harvest Period

In this study, the yellow and white varieties exhibited longer vase life. With uniform stalk and leaf size, their capitulum was larger than the green and pink varieties with a subglobose shape and tightly arranged petals. This structure effectively reduced the transpiration area and created a moist micro-environment. Reduced airflow and humidity fluctuations within the capitulum contributed to improving water holding. In addition, higher structural stability provided better resistance to mechanical damage and environmental stresses, thus reducing storage and transport costs.
The heterogeneity of the petal inclusions among varieties with different colors from the ‘Pingpong’ group, such as anthocyanins in the pink variety [66], resulted in different responses to oxidants, absorbents, and fungicides in preservation. It is noteworthy that the vase life of the pink variety was drastically increased after TP and MT treatments, especially extended by 190% under MT2 treatment. The green variety, on the other hand, presented a lower degree of the vase life increase, indicating its relatively lower competitiveness on an economic scale.

5. Conclusions

It was demonstrated that 0.04 mmol·L−1 MT was the best treatment for the four varieties, which increased the vase life of the white, yellow, green, and pink varieties by 4, 4, 1, and 5 days, respectively. TPs improved the flower diameter during the post-harvest period, where the 200 mg·L−1 dose significantly extended the vase life by 133.33–166.67%. However, CT caused a shorter vase life by losing both flower diameter and fresh weight, which was considered negative for the cut chrysanthemum ‘Pingpong’ group. Therefore, the application of 0.04 mmol·L−1 MT and 200 mg·L−1 TPs was suggested to enhance the marketability of the cut chrysanthemums.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.H.; methodology, Z.Y.; software, Z.Y.; validation, Z.Y. and S.L.; formal analysis, Z.Y.; investigation, Z.Y. and S.L.; resources, Z.Y. and Y.H.; data curation, Z.Y. and S.L.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.Y. and S.L.; writing—review and editing, Z.Y. and Y.H.; visualization, Z.Y.; supervision, Y.H.; project administration, Y.H.; funding acquisition, Y.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Beijing Natural Science Foundation (Grant No. 6222043), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 32271946), and the Engineering Research & Innovation Team Project of Beijing Forestry University (Grant No. BLRC2023A06).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data are contained within this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

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Figure 1. Four stages of flower senescence in the cut chrysanthemum ‘Pingpong’ group during the vase life. S1: fresh stage; S2: growing stage; S3: wilting and browning stage; S4: collapsing stage (half of petals brown or wilted).
Figure 1. Four stages of flower senescence in the cut chrysanthemum ‘Pingpong’ group during the vase life. S1: fresh stage; S2: growing stage; S3: wilting and browning stage; S4: collapsing stage (half of petals brown or wilted).
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Figure 2. Exhibitive flowers of the cut chrysanthemum ‘Pingpong’ group. From left to right: Chrysanthemum × morifolium ‘Yellow Pingpong’, C. × morifolium ‘White Pingpong’, C. × morifolium ‘Pink Pingpong’, and C. × morifolium ‘Green Pingpong’.
Figure 2. Exhibitive flowers of the cut chrysanthemum ‘Pingpong’ group. From left to right: Chrysanthemum × morifolium ‘Yellow Pingpong’, C. × morifolium ‘White Pingpong’, C. × morifolium ‘Pink Pingpong’, and C. × morifolium ‘Green Pingpong’.
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Figure 3. Senescence processes during the vase life period of the variety Chrysanthemum × morifolium ‘White Pingpong’. A certain stage is reached if more than half (i.e., three replicates) of the five replicates in a treatment reach that stage.
Figure 3. Senescence processes during the vase life period of the variety Chrysanthemum × morifolium ‘White Pingpong’. A certain stage is reached if more than half (i.e., three replicates) of the five replicates in a treatment reach that stage.
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Figure 4. Flower diameter changing process in the vase life period. (A) Yellow variety; (B) white variety; (C) green variety; (D) pink variety. Values are the means ± standard error (SE) (n = 5). LSD at p < 0.05 was used for means comparison. TPs, tea polyphenols; CT, chitosan; MT, melatonin.
Figure 4. Flower diameter changing process in the vase life period. (A) Yellow variety; (B) white variety; (C) green variety; (D) pink variety. Values are the means ± standard error (SE) (n = 5). LSD at p < 0.05 was used for means comparison. TPs, tea polyphenols; CT, chitosan; MT, melatonin.
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Figure 5. Comparison of the range of flower diameter of the CK sample (max. and min.).
Figure 5. Comparison of the range of flower diameter of the CK sample (max. and min.).
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Figure 6. Fresh weight and water balance changing process in the vase life period of the white variety. Values are the means ± standard error (SE) (n = 5). LSD at p < 0.05 was used for means comparison. TPs, tea polyphenols; CT, chitosan; MT, melatonin.
Figure 6. Fresh weight and water balance changing process in the vase life period of the white variety. Values are the means ± standard error (SE) (n = 5). LSD at p < 0.05 was used for means comparison. TPs, tea polyphenols; CT, chitosan; MT, melatonin.
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Figure 7. PCA of four treats among varieties under seven treatments.
Figure 7. PCA of four treats among varieties under seven treatments.
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Table 1. Different experimental concentrations of tea polyphenols (TPs), chitosan (CT), and melatonin (MT) in previous studies.
Table 1. Different experimental concentrations of tea polyphenols (TPs), chitosan (CT), and melatonin (MT) in previous studies.
IngredientExperimental ConcentrationEffective ConcentrationLiterature
TPs200, 400, 600, 800, 1000 mg·L−1200, 400 mg·L−1[22]
CT0.05, 0.10, 0.15 g·L−10.10 g·L−1[25]
0.20 g·L−10.20 g·L−1[26]
MT0.01, 0.02, 0.04, 0.08 mmol·L−10.02 mmol·L−1[27]
0.01, 0.02, 0.04 mmol·L−10.02, 0.04 mmol·L−1[28]
0.02 mmol·L−10.02 mmol·L−1[29]
Table 2. Composition of the tea polyphenol (TP), chitosan (CT), and melatonin (MT) preservation solutions.
Table 2. Composition of the tea polyphenol (TP), chitosan (CT), and melatonin (MT) preservation solutions.
TreatmentPreservation Solution
Base IngredientsExperimental Ingredients
SucroseCitric AcidTP Master
Solution		CTMT Master
Solution 1		MT Master
Solution 2
TP112.00 g1.50 g10.00 mL000
TP220.00 mL000
CT100.06 g00
CT200.12 g00
MT100600 μL0
MT2000600 μL
CK0000
Table 3. Vase life of the ‘Pingpong’ group in each treatment by tea polyphenols (TPs), chitosan (CT), and melatonin (MT) (*** p < 0.001).
Table 3. Vase life of the ‘Pingpong’ group in each treatment by tea polyphenols (TPs), chitosan (CT), and melatonin (MT) (*** p < 0.001).
VarietyTreatmentVase Life (Days)Coefficient of VariationCritical DifferenceFp Value
Ave.Min.Max.
‘Yellow Pingpong’CK9.2 d81035.87%1.86153.964.13 × 10−20 ***
TP112.4 b1113
TP211.0 c1012
CT14.8 e45
CT24.6 e45
MT112.2 b1213
MT213.4 a1314
‘White Pingpong’CK8.0 c7926.19%2.0365.393.58 × 10−15 ***
TP111.2 b1011
TP210.4 b1112
CT15.6 d57
CT27.6 c69
MT112.2 a1213
MT212.4 a1213
‘Green Pingpong’CK6.8 b6726.61%1.7338.033.36 × 10−12 ***
TP17.2 ab68
TP26.8 b68
CT13.8 c34
CT24.0 c44
MT17.4 ab78
MT28.0 a79
‘Pink Pingpong’CK6.0 c5733.76%2.6941.261.23 × 10−12 ***
TP110.4 a1012
TP210.4 a1011
CT14.6 d37
CT25.6 cd47
MT17.6 b78
MT211.4 a1112
Different superscript letters indicate significant differences at p < 0.05. *** p < 0.001.
Table 4. The senescence stage of samples treated with tea polyphenols (TPs), chitosan (CT), and melatonin (MT) during the vase life of yellow, green, and pink varieties.
Table 4. The senescence stage of samples treated with tea polyphenols (TPs), chitosan (CT), and melatonin (MT) during the vase life of yellow, green, and pink varieties.
VarietyTreatmentDays
12345678910111213
‘Yellow Pingpong’CK1.01.2 b1.4 bc2 c2.4 b2.8 b3.2 b3.4 b4.0 an/an/an/an/a
TP11.01.0 b1.2 bc1.8 cd2.0 bc2.0 d2.2 cd2.6 cd3.2 bc3.2 b3.8 b4.0 an/a
TP21.01.2 b1.6 bc2.0 bc2.2 b2.4 c2.8 c3.0 bc3.6 ab3.8 a4.0 an/an/a
CT11.02.4 a2.8 a3.2 bn/an/an/an/an/an/an/an/an/a
CT21.02.0 a3.2 a3.8 an/an/an/an/an/an/an/an/an/a
MT11.01.0 b1.0 c1.2 d1.6 c2.0 d2.2 d2.4 e3.0 d3.2 b3.4 c4.0 an/a
MT21.01.0 b1.0 c1.2 d1.4 c2.0 d2.0 cd2.0 de2.6 cd3.0 b3.2 bc3.4 b4.0
‘White Pingpong’CK1.01.41.6 bc1.8 bc2.6 b3.0 b3.4 a4.0 an/an/an/an/an/a
TP11.01.41.6 bc1.6 c1.8 cd2.2 de2.4 b2.4 bc2.8 c3.4 b3.8 abn/an/a
TP21.01.41.6 bc2.0 bc2.2 bc2.4 cd2.4 b2.8 b3.4 b3.8 bn/an/an/a
CT11.01.62.4 a3.2 a3.4 an/an/an/an/an/an/an/an/a
CT21.01.62.0 ab2.4 b2.6 b2.8 bc3.6 an/an/an/an/an/an/a
MT11.01.01.2 c1.4 c1.4 d1.8 e2.0 b2.4 bc2.4 c3.0 c3.4 b4.0 an/a
MT21.01.01.2 c1.4 c1.4 d1.8 e2.2 b2.2 c2.6 c3.0 c3.4 b3.6 bn/a
‘Green Pingpong’CK1.02.0 ab2.4 b3 b3.4 b3.8 abn/an/an/an/an/an/an/a
TP11.01.8 b2.0 b2.4 c3.2 b3.8 ab4.0 an/an/an/an/an/an/a
TP21.02.0 ab2.0 b2 c3.0 b3.2 cn/an/an/an/an/an/an/a
CT11.02.2 a3.4 an/an/an/an/an/an/an/an/an/an/a
CT21.02.0 ab3.0 a4.0 an/an/an/an/an/an/an/an/an/a
MT11.01.0 c1.2 c1.4 d2.4 c3.4 bc4.0 an/an/an/an/an/an/a
MT21.01.0 c1.0 c1.2 d2.2 c3.0 c3.2 b4n/an/an/an/an/a
‘Pink Pingpong’CK1.02.6 ab3.0 a3.2 ab3.8 a4.0 an/an/an/an/an/an/an/a
TP11.01.2 d2.4 b2.6 bc2.6 b3.0 bc3.0 bc3.2 bc3.4 b4.0 an/an/an/a
TP21.01.8 c2.4 b2.4 c2.6 b2.6 cd2.8 cd3.4 c3.6 bc4.0 an/an/an/a
CT11.03.0 a3.2 a3.6 an/an/an/an/an/an/an/an/an/a
CT21.02.2 bc3.4 a3.4 a3.8 an/an/an/an/an/an/an/an/a
MT11.01.0 d1.2 c2.4 c2.8 b3.2 b3.4 dn/an/an/an/an/an/a
MT21.01.0 d1.0 c1.2 d1.6 c2.2 d2.4 b3.0 c3.2 b3.6 b4.0n/an/a
Different superscript letters indicate significant differences at p < 0.05.
Table 5. Significance analysis on flower diameter.
Table 5. Significance analysis on flower diameter.
VarietyFp Value
‘Yellow Pingpong’4.210.04 × 10−1 *
‘White Pingpong’13.972.69 × 10−7 ***
‘Green Pingpong’8.000.44 × 10−4 ***
‘Pink Pingpong’5.040.13 × 10−2 **
* p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
Table 6. Analyses of the fresh weight and water balance.
Table 6. Analyses of the fresh weight and water balance.
VarietyTreatmentFresh Weight (%)Fp ValueTotal Water Balance (mg per Five Stems)
‘Yellow Pingpong’CK1.01 a45.373.77 × 10−13 ***−22.97
TT1−5.17 b−52.85
TT2−6.53 b−68.73
CT1−12.50 c−59.99
CT2−18.61 d−69.59
MT1−0.38 a−34.95
MT21.47 a−7.30
‘White Pingpong’ CK−13.41 b19.547.91 × 10−9 ***−1.83
TT1−1.68 a−5.66
TT2−7.22 ab−13.75
CT1−28.12 c−14.41
CT2−25.30 c−10.97
MT1−10.44 b−9.90
MT2−8.52 b−16.79
‘Green Pingpong’CK−1.70 a7.950.46 × 10−4 ***−13.29
TT1−6.38 ab−10.92
TT2−13.44 b−18.43
CT1−21.74 c−54.59
CT2−22.44 c−54.39
MT1−9.45 ab−46.04
MT2−9.59 ab−29.44
‘Pink Pingpong’CK−5.44 ab14.411.97 × 10−7 ***−28.99
TT1−2.66 a−22.37
TT2−4.85 ab−24.47
CT1−16.78 c−29.08
CT2−25.15 d−48.27
MT1−10.19 bc−48.45
MT2−0.42 a−38.79
Different superscript letters indicate significant differences at p < 0.05. *** p < 0.001. TPs, tea polyphenols; CT, chitosan; MT, melatonin.
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Yu, Z.; Li, S.; Hong, Y. Influence of Tea Polyphenols, Chitosan, and Melatonin as the Eco-Friendly Post-Harvest Treatments on the Vase Life of the Cut Chrysanthemum ‘Pingpong’ Group. Agriculture 2024, 14, 1507. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14091507

AMA Style

Yu Z, Li S, Hong Y. Influence of Tea Polyphenols, Chitosan, and Melatonin as the Eco-Friendly Post-Harvest Treatments on the Vase Life of the Cut Chrysanthemum ‘Pingpong’ Group. Agriculture. 2024; 14(9):1507. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14091507

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yu, Ziyi, Shuangda Li, and Yan Hong. 2024. "Influence of Tea Polyphenols, Chitosan, and Melatonin as the Eco-Friendly Post-Harvest Treatments on the Vase Life of the Cut Chrysanthemum ‘Pingpong’ Group" Agriculture 14, no. 9: 1507. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture14091507

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