The Extent of Aflatoxin B1 Contamination in Chili (Capsicum annuum L.) and Consumer Awareness and Knowledge of Aflatoxins in Oman

Abstract

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a hepatocarcinogenic metabolite produced by certain strains of Aspergillus section Flavi, is one of the major contaminants in red chili products that affect human health. This study determined the level of AFB1 in chili traded in Oman. In addition, a survey was conducted among 260 respondents to assess consumers’ knowledge and awareness of aflatoxin contamination in chili. A competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was performed on 58 samples of dried red chili pods, red chili flakes, and red chili powder collected from various markets in Oman. The ELISA results showed the presence of AFB1 in all the samples analyzed. None of the dried red chili pod samples exceeded 10 ppb AFB1, the maximum permissible limit adopted by the Oman Legislation for foods, whereas a few red chili flakes and red chili powder samples exceeded 10 ppb. However, AFB1 content in all the samples was below the maximum tolerance limit of 20 ppb set by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. The survey results revealed that most respondents were unaware of aflatoxins, as education, gender, and social media were found to be significant determinants of aflatoxin awareness. This study provides valuable insights into the level of AFB1 contamination in red chili products, raises the need for aflatoxin awareness in Oman, and urges for safe culinary practices in the region.

1. Introduction

Aflatoxins are toxic metabolites that are produced by Aspergillus sp., which include A. flavus, A. parasiticus, and A. nomius [1]. More than 20 different types of aflatoxins have been described [2]. The types of aflatoxins that are of important public health concern include aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, M1, and M2 [1,3,4]. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) has been categorized as a Group 1 human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer [5]. High exposure to aflatoxins can cause severe health effects in humans, which depend on various factors such as dosage, type of toxin, gender, age, health, and nutritional status of the individual [6]. Africa and Asia showed a high-level occurrence of hepatitis B infection in populations with widespread dietary exposure to aflatoxins [7]. Aflatoxin contamination is common in several tropical and subtropical countries, where temperature and relative humidity are appropriate for the proliferation of aflatoxigenic fungi [3,8]. In addition, socioeconomic factors, including inadequate transportation modes, informal marketing systems, absence of needed materials, equipment, and tools, governmental legislation and regulations, and lack of knowledge and information on suitable management of pre-and post-harvest practices lead to aflatoxin contamination in food products [9].

Chili (Capsicum annuum L.) is an important cash crop worldwide. It can be contaminated with multiple types of mycotoxins [10]. Chili has been recognized as a highly aflatoxin-contaminated crop that can take place in the field or during processing, drying, and storage [11]. The occurrence of aflatoxins in chili products, including chili sauce, red chili powder, and red chili flakes, has been documented [10,11,12,13,14]. The European Union has established strict tolerance levels for AFB1 and total aflatoxins (B1 + B2 + B3 + B4) in chili peppers, setting the limits at 5 and 10 ppb, respectively (Commission Regulation EC No. 1881/2006). A lack of awareness about aflatoxins and their effect on human and animal health [15] as well as inefficient regulatory enforcement and educational programs [16] have been identified as other contributory factors associated with aflatoxin contamination in agricultural commodities.

Most food products, such as cereal grains, are imported into the Sultanate of Oman from various countries [17]. A few studies reported the occurrence of aflatoxin in food commodities traded in Oman [18,19]. For instance, a recent study observed that AFB1 levels in some food products obtained directly from the port of entry through the quarantine department were less than 5 ppb. Nevertheless, in some red chili powder samples collected from Muscat markets, AFB1 levels exceeded the maximum tolerance limit of 5 ppb established by the European Union for chili [19]. Consumer awareness of aflatoxin exposure varies significantly across regions and countries. In areas with less stringent food safety regulations, particularly in developing countries, people are exposed to serious health risks from aflatoxin [20]. For example, sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia experience high contamination of staple foods due to hot climates and poor storage conditions [21]. Even imported foods like dried red chilies can pose risks. To address this issue globally, increasing consumer awareness and enhancing food safety practices through public awareness campaigns and more rigorous regulations are crucial. However, no information is available on the awareness and knowledge about aflatoxins among consumers in Oman. In this study, the extent of AFB1 contamination in red chili marketed in Oman was analyzed. The awareness and knowledge about aflatoxin and its health effects among consumers were evaluated through a structured questionnaire.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Sample Collection

A total of 58 samples (100 g to 1 kg) consisting of 14 dried red chili pods, 18 red chili flakes, and 26 red chili powder were collected from retail shops and supermarkets in different wilayats (areas) and governorates of the Sultanate of Oman in 2021–2022. The samples were collected in food storage bags and stored at room temperature (25 ± 2 °C) until analysis.

2.2. AFB1 Analysis

The samples were ground into fine powders using a mixer grinder (Preethi Chef Pro mixer grinder; Preethi Kitchen Appliances Pvt. Ltd., Chennai, India) and 70% methanol was added (1 g in 5 mL) and vortexed. The homogenates were centrifuged for 10 min at 12,000× g at room temperature (25 ± 2 °C) and the supernatants were collected. One mL of the supernatant was mixed with 1 mL of distilled water and 50 μL of the diluted extract was used in the assay. AFB1 content in the samples was analyzed by a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using a commercial kit (RIDASCREEN Aflatoxin B1 30/15 (Art No. R1211; R-Biopharm AG, Darmstadt, Germany) according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

2.3. AFB1 Awareness Survey

This study was conducted in the Sultanate of Oman between March and April 2023. Individuals from various provinces (Wilayats) and the governorates of Oman participated in the study. A structured questionnaire prepared in Arabic and English was distributed randomly online and 260 responses were obtained. The questionnaire consisted of four sections: (1) demographic information, encompassing gender, age, nationality, governorate, education, and occupation; (2) frequency of chili consumption; and (3) aflatoxin awareness, comprising queries on participants’ knowledge of aflatoxin, its reduction through cooking, storage practices, and factors contributing to aflatoxin occurrence.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the survey data. Statistical measures of central tendency (mean and frequency distributions) were utilized to visualize chili consumption patterns and aflatoxin awareness, and a probit model was employed to estimate the likelihood of aflatoxin awareness based on some socio-demographic factors. All data management and descriptive analysis were conducted using RStudio version 3 (RStudio, Boston, MA, USA) software, and Stata version 16 (StataCorp, College Station, Texas, USA) was utilized for the econometric analysis.

Probit Model Specification

The probit model was used in this study to analyze the likelihood of aflatoxin awareness based on some demographic characteristics of the respondents. The probit model is suitable for analyzing dichotomous outcome variables [22]. The probit model (Equation (1)) is mathematically described: x represents a set of explanatory variables, $\beta$ denotes the parameter estimates, and Φ represents the cumulative distribution function. Concerning the empirical model (Equation (2)), $AW{R}_{it}$ indicates if a respondent is aware of aflatoxin (1 = aware, 0 = not aware). The $age$, $gender$, $educ$, and $source$, respectively, capture the age, gender, education level (having higher education or otherwise), and source of aflatoxin awareness of the respondent, while $\mu$ stands for the error term. The source of aflatoxin awareness explains if respondents know about aflatoxin through social media or elsewhere. In addition, the interaction between age and gender is captured by $ag{e}_{it}\ast gende{r}_{it}$. With this interaction, we expect that an increase in age and the type of gender would increase the likelihood of being aware of aflatoxin.

$$P(Y=1| X_1, X_2,\dots ,X_k)=\Phi ({\beta }_0+{\beta }_1{X}_1+{\beta }_2{X}_2+\dots +{\beta }_k{X}_k)$$

(1)

$$AW{R}_{it}={\beta }_0+{\beta }_{1}ag{e}_{it}+{\beta }_{2}gende{r}_{it}+{\beta }_{3}edu{c}_{it}+{{\beta }_4}_{it}source+{\beta }_{5}ag{e}_{it}\ast gende{r}_{it}+{\mu }_{it}$$

(2)

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Aflatoxin B1 Contamination in Chili

Out of 14 dried red chili pod samples tested, 8 (57.1%) samples had AFB1 levels between 1 and 5 ppb, while the remaining 6 (42.8%) had levels between 5.1 and 10 ppb (

Table 1. The level of aflatoxin B1 contamination in chili samples marketed in Oman.

Type of Chili	Total Number of Samples	Number of Samples and AFB1 Concentration Range (ppb)
		0	1–5	5.1–10	10.1–15	15.1–20	Above 20
Dried red chili pods	14	-	8 (2.0–4.8)	6 (5.4–9.6)	-	-	-
Red chili flakes	18	-	8 (1.6–4.8)	8 (6.4–9.6)	1 (12)	1 (19.2)	-
Red chili powder	26	-	8 (2.2–4.4)	9 (5.6–9.4)	4 (10.8–14.8)	5 (16.4–19.4)	-

). None of the samples exceeded the permissible limit of 10 ppb stipulated by Oman Legislation on food (Agenda Item 11, Codex Committee on Contaminants in Foods, Eleventh Session, Rio De Janeiro, Brazil, 3–7 April 2017). Of the 18 red chili flakes samples, 8 (44.4%) contained AFB1 in the range of 1–5 ppb, another 8 (44.4%) samples fell in the 5.1–10 ppb range, and 1 (5.5%) sample each showed AFB1 levels of 10.1–15 and 15.1–20 ppb. Among the 26 red chili powder samples tested, 8 (30.8%) contained AFB1 levels between 1 and 5 ppb, 9 (34.6%) had AFB1 levels of 5.1–10 ppb, 4 (15.4%) recorded 10.1–15 ppb, and 5 (19.2%) samples contained 15.1–20 ppb. The mean AFB1 contamination levels in dry red chili pods, red chili flakes, and chili powder were 5.1, 6.8, and 9.2 ppb, respectively. None of the samples had more than 20 ppb, the maximum tolerance limit fixed by the USFDA for foods [23]. However, 42.8% of dried red chili pods, 55.5% of red chili flakes, and 69.2% of red chili powder samples tested exceeded the maximum allowable limit of AFB1 (5 ppb) established by the European Union for chili. Foodborne mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi in Capsicum spp. have been well documented in many parts of the world [13,24,25,26]. For example, about 50% of chili samples in Pakistan contained more than 5 ppb of AFB1 [24]. Paterson [27] recorded AFB1 levels as high as 93 ppb in dry red chili samples collected from local markets in Pakistan. Kiran et al. [28] reported AFB1 contamination in chili pods at a level of 5.5 ppb. Nejad et al. [29] from Iran, while analyzing AFB1 content in spices, reported that chili powder had a higher concentration of AFB1 than other samples. In Nigeria, Ezekiel et al. [30] found that 69% of the chili pepper samples collected from local markets and farmers’ stores were contaminated with aflatoxins, with an average concentration of 8.9 ppb. Kuzukiran et al. [31] analyzed 45 dry-ground chili pepper samples from pepper-producing regions of Turkey and found that 51% of the samples were contaminated with aflatoxins. Of these, 28.9% exceeded the maximum residue limits (MRL; >10 ppb), with AFB1 levels ranging from 0.45 to 48.3 ppb. Iqbal et al. [32] found that 190 out of 252 (75.4%) red chili sauce samples tested positive for aflatoxins. The highest average concentration of 11.7 ppb of AFB1 was found in samples from local restaurants, with 44.8% of the samples exceeding the recommended EU limits. Enamullah et al. [33] analyzed the total aflatoxin content in 21 chili samples, consisting of unpacked whole chili pods and both unpacked and packed chili powder, collected from local markets in Pakistan. They reported aflatoxin levels ranging between 3.2 and 39.2 ppb. Rajendran et al. [14] analyzed 42 chili samples collected from farms and retail stores in India and reported that the total aflatoxin content in the samples ranged from 3.8 to 37.8 ppb.

To minimize mold growth and mycotoxin contamination, it was suggested that the water content of chili pods be reduced to 13% after harvest [34,35,36]. In this study, red chili powder exhibited higher levels of AFB1 compared to dried red chili pods and chili flakes. This could be attributed to the small sample size used in the analysis and the hygroscopic nature of the red chili powder. The dried red chili pods and chili flakes are also hygroscopic. Hence, improper storage conditions that allow for rehydration of chili powder, chili flakes, and dried chili pods can lead to mold growth and subsequent mycotoxin contamination [37,38]. In the present study, 11% red chili flakes and 34% chili powder exceeded 10 ppb AFB1. These results emphasize the importance of using highly safe, aflatoxin-free dried red chili pods to prepare chili products to minimize the risk of aflatoxin contamination.

3.2. Respondents’ Knowledge and Awareness of Aflatoxin

3.2.1. Sociodemographic Characteristics of Respondents

Table 2. Sociodemographic characteristics of respondents (n = 260).

Characteristics	Frequency	Percent
Gender
Male	67	25.8
Female	193	74.2
Age
19–25	58	22.3
26–30	86	33.1
31–40	78	30.0
Above 40	38	14.6
Nationality
Omani	243	93.5
Non-Omani	17	6.5
Education
No education	1	0.3
Primary education	4	1.5
Diploma	62	23.8
University	193	74.2
Occupation
Academics	22	8.5
Student	44	16.9
Economics/Finance	22	8.5
Unemployed	93	35.8
Engineering/information technology	36	13.8
Health and Medical Industry	13	5
Agriculture and Food Industry	5	1.9
Self-employed	1	0.4

provides an overview of the socio-demographic profiles of the 260 survey respondents. The data revealed that 74.2% of the respondents were females and 25.8% were males. The age distribution shows that the highest representation of the respondents was within the 26–30 age group (33.1%), followed by the 31–40 age group (30.0%). The majority of the participants (98%) had tertiary education degrees, whereas only a negligible fraction reported primary education (1.6%) or no education (0.4%). Most respondents were local citizens, comprising 93.5% of the respondents, while non-Omanis constituted a small proportion (6.5%). Concerning occupation, the sample showed a diverse mix, with the largest groups being unemployed (35.8%), academics (17.7%), and students (16.9%). The sociodemographic backgrounds among the survey participants show diversity in the respondents’ backgrounds that can contribute to understanding chili consumption patterns across different sociodemographic groups in Oman.

3.2.2. Chili Procurement, Storage, and Consumption Patterns

Our survey results showed the respondents’ diversity in chili consumption preferences (

Table 3. Chili procurement, storage practices, and consumption patterns among the respondents (n = 260).

	Response	Frequency	Percent
In what form do you like chili?	Powder	28	10.8
	Dried red chili pod	27	10.4
	Liquid	77	29.6
	All of the above	128	49.2
Where do you buy chili?	Local markets	67	25.8
	Supermarkets/Hypermarkets	179	68.8
	Farm	3	1.15
	All	3	1.15
	Others	8	3.1
What type of packaging and label do you prefer?	Branded	212	81.5
	Non-branded	48	18.5
Where do you store chili products?	Refrigerator	88	33.8
	Kitchen cabinet (room temperature)	54	20.8
	All of above	118	45.4
How frequently do you consume food that contains chili as the primary ingredient?	One meal a day	137	52.7
	Two meals a day	64	24.6
	Three meals a day	46	17.7
	None	13	5.0

). Approximately half of the respondents (49.2%) desired chili in “all forms”, indicating an appreciation for chili in various culinary preparations and dishes. Approximately 40% of respondents preferred chili powder and liquid forms, which can be added to sauces or used as a seasoning. Additionally, 10.4% of the respondents indicated a fondness for dried red chili pods. Consumer preferences for chili consumption in different forms (liquid, powder, and dried red chili pods) may be influenced by sociocultural and territorial context [12]. Supermarkets/hypermarkets are the preferred choice for most consumers (68.8%) to buy chili. The local markets (25.8%) are also significant sources of purchases, and a smaller proportion of participants (5.5%) indicated that they were purchasing from all other sources, such as farms or retail outlets or from all forms of outlet. Most respondents (81.5%) preferred branded packaging, perhaps suggesting trust in established brands. Consumers are less willing to buy unbranded chili, considering product safety and quality assurance. Similar findings were found in Bangladesh [39]. In contrast, 18.5% of the respondents preferred non-branded packaging, suggesting an interest in local or artisanal products.

Aflatoxin formation is closely linked to chili storage conditions. According to the survey results, there is a significant variation in chili storage practices among Omani consumers (Table 3). Nearly half (45.4%) of the participants reported storing chili in refrigerators and kitchen cabinets. This may have been influenced by the participants’ preference for chili in powder and liquid forms (40% preferred chili powder and liquid forms). Additionally, consumers may utilize various storage conditions based on convenience and culinary requirements. There was a greater preference for refrigerator storage (33.8%) than kitchen cabinet storage (20.8%). When the chili is refrigerated, it has a longer shelf-life and maintains its freshness and flavor [40]. Using a refrigerator as a storage option aligns with food safety practices, ensuring the safety of chili before it is consumed. The kitchen cabinet storage, a traditional storage approach, may be influenced by cultural practices and culinary preferences. It is important to note that chili stored in the kitchen cabinet may be more susceptible to environmental factors such as heat and humidity, potentially affecting its quality over time [41].

Regarding the chili consumption pattern in Oman, most survey participants consume chili at least once daily. Among the respondents, 52.7% reported including chili in one meal daily, 24.6% included chili in two daily meals, and 17.7% incorporated chili into three daily meals. Chili in multiple daily meals among a substantial portion of respondents highlights the integral significance of chili in Oman’s daily nutritional habits. It has been shown that liking spicy food and eating chili frequently are closely related [42]. Interestingly, a minority of the respondents (5%) indicated that they did not include chili in their meals.

3.2.3. Aflatoxin Awareness

The level of education and awareness are key factors in mitigating the problems of mycotoxin economies [43,44,45,46]. The respondents were asked a series of questions to determine their knowledge and awareness of aflatoxin, the factors that promote its presence, and the sources of information about aflatoxin. The responses indicated that aflatoxin awareness was based on their educational level, and more than two-thirds of the total respondents (83.46%) needed to be made aware of aflatoxin (

Table 4. Aflatoxin awareness among the respondents and their level of education (n = 260).

Level of Education		Aflatoxin Awareness
		May Be	No	Yes
University	Frequency	9	161	23
	Percent	4.66	83.41	11.93
Diploma	Frequency	2	52	8
	Percent	3.22	83.87	12.90
Primary	Frequency	0	4	0
	Percent	0	100	0
No formal education	Frequency	1	0	0
	Percent	100	0	0
Total	Frequency	12	217	31
	Percent	4.61	83.46	11.92

). A significant level of awareness was observed among respondents with university and diploma education. Specifically, 23 out of 193 (11.9%) university-educated respondents, and 8 out of 62 (12.9%) individuals with a level of diploma education were aware of aflatoxin. In contrast, individuals with no formal education or only primary education had no awareness. Ebrima et al. [7] found that of the total 325 respondents, 159 (49%) had knowledge or heard of aflatoxin, whereas 166 (51%) had not. They also found that people with higher educational levels are more informed and familiar with aflatoxin (83%) than others. Magembe et al. [47], while assessing the awareness of mycotoxins in 72 households in Kilosa District, Tanzania, reported that 97% of the respondents were unaware of mold infection in corn and peanuts. Furthermore, awareness was higher among the educated than the less-educated participants. Udomkun et al. [9] found a negative correlation between the level of aflatoxin contamination in foods and both the education and income levels of farmers. In contrast, a positive correlation was observed between household size and aflatoxin contamination levels. They further noted a positive correlation between annual income and knowledge and awareness of aflatoxin contamination. Adekoya et al. [48] reported that 98% of respondents in Nigeria were unaware of mycotoxin contamination in foods, and their education level slightly correlated with their level of awareness. Suleiman et al. [49] reported that 80% of farmers in Tanzania did not know about mycotoxin contamination. Niyibituronsa et al. [50] reported that about 60% of respondents in Ethiopia needed to be made aware of aflatoxins. Fundikira et al. [46] reported that only 3.3% of spice retailers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, knew of aflatoxin contamination in spices. Ngoma et al. [51] found that only 3.6% of parents of young children in central Tanzania were aware of aflatoxins. However, 93% of farmers in lower eastern Kenya were aware of aflatoxins [52]. The outbreak of aflatoxicosis was linked to the increased public awareness of aflatoxins in Kenya [46]. Based on the present findings, it can be concluded that educational attainment is an essential factor influencing aflatoxin awareness.

Individuals with a higher level of education demonstrate a significant level of awareness, possibly due to the increased exposure to educational resources and information regarding food safety. In contrast, respondents with lower education levels exhibited low awareness, indicating the need for targeted educational initiatives to enhance their understanding of aflatoxin and its potential health implications. However, it is essential to note that the sample size for each education level varies, with university-educated individuals having the largest sample size. In general, the majority of the respondents (83.46%) were unaware of aflatoxin regardless of their education levels.

3.2.4. Sources of Awareness and Knowledge

Table 5. Sources of awareness and knowledge of aflatoxin contamination.

Knowledge Parameter	Response	Frequency	Percent
Where did you learn about aflatoxin? *	Social media	11	37.9
	University press release/workshop/training	16	55.2
	None	2	6.9
Can cooking reduce the effect of aflatoxin? *	Yes	16	51.6
	No	4	12.9
	May be	11	35.5
Can storage conditions influence aflatoxin contamination? *	Yes	29	93.5
	No	2	6.5
What are the factors influencing aflatoxin contamination? *	Temperature, insect damage, drought stress	1	3.2
	Temperature, humidity, drought stress	1	3.2
	Temperature, humidity, insect damage	1	3.2
	Temperature, humidity, mold contamination, insect damage, drought stress	2	6.5
	Temperature, humidity, mold contamination, insect damage	2	6.5
	Temperature, humidity, mold contamination	4	12.9
	Temperature, humidity	5	16.1
	Temperature	7	22.6
	Drought stress	1	3.2
	Humidity	4	12.9
	Mold contamination, drought stress	1	3.2
	Mold contamination, insect damage	1	3.2
	Mold contamination	1	3.2

* Data collected from respondents who answered ‘yes’ to aflatoxin awareness.

outlines the respondents’ sources of aflatoxin awareness and knowledge. Most respondents (55.2%) reported learning about aflatoxins through university press releases, workshops, or training, while a significant portion (37.9%) also gained knowledge via social media. Ebrima et al. [7] emphasized that media is an effective tool to create awareness about aflatoxins. More widespread awareness efforts are required, mainly through channels like social media. More than half (51.6%) of the respondents who were aware of aflatoxins believe cooking can eliminate its effects. Previous studies have shown that certain cooking methods can reduce aflatoxin levels but do not entirely eliminate the toxin. Bashir et al.’s [53] study found that roasting and pan-frying treatments effectively reduced aflatoxin (B1, B2, G1, and G2) levels in chili to below the prescribed limits, emphasizing the need for accurate information about food safety practices.

Nearly all respondents (93.5%) recognize the critical role of storage conditions in aflatoxin contamination, indicating strong awareness and knowledge in this area. Gamuchirai et al. [54] studied the effects of drying and storage conditions on aflatoxins. They reported that direct sun drying (35° to 36 °C), solar cabinet drying (36° to 38 °C), and oven drying (65 °C) reduced the total aflatoxin levels in dry chili significantly (p < 0.05). The mean total aflatoxin levels in sun-dried and solar cabinet-dried chili were 5.6 ppb and 7.0 ppb, respectively, with no aflatoxin contamination in oven-dried chili. Iqbal et al. [55] found that aflatoxin concentrations in hot peppers increased by 16% when stored at 25 °C and 30 °C compared to 20 °C. However, there were varying levels of understanding regarding the factors contributing to aflatoxin contamination. Only a small percentage accurately identified the combination of temperature, humidity, mold contamination, and insect damage as key contributors. This diversity in responses indicates a fragmented understanding of the issue and could have notable socio-economic implications. Aflatoxin contamination affects public health and has economic repercussions, particularly in agricultural communities. This highlights an urgent need for targeted educational programs to address these knowledge gaps and promote safer agricultural and storage practices. Strengthening these efforts could help reduce the prevalence of aflatoxin contamination and mitigate its impact on health and livelihoods.

In summary, educational interventions and social media platforms have successfully enhanced public consciousness about aflatoxin contamination. However, it is necessary to acknowledge that notable deficiencies need further focus through the revision and implementation of comprehensive public health education initiatives.

3.2.5. Aflatoxin Awareness Determinants from the Probit Model

The estimates of the awareness model and the margin (predicted probability of awareness) are presented in

Table 6. Probit model estimates of aflatoxin awareness.

	(1)	(2)
	Estimates	Margin
Variables
age	0.048
	(0.040)
Gender
Male	−2.387 * (1.409)	0.21
Female (b)	-	0.31
Education
No higher education	−0.566 * (0.325)	0.19
Higher education (b)	-	0.34
Source of Awareness
Social media	1.492 ** (0.361)	0.73
Non-social media (b)	-	0.22
Gender#age	−0.068
	(0.046)
cons	−0.026
	(0.678)
N	128
ll	−65.993
Prob > chi2	0.001
chi2	19.791

Standard robust errors are in parentheses. Notably, (b) stands for the base for the categorical variables. * p < 0.10 and ** p < 0.01 indicate the significance level of the variables.

(columns 1 and 2, respectively). The model is considered statistically significant with the likelihood ratio chi-square of 19.79 (p-value of 0.001). The margin shows the expected probabilities based on the variables in the model. All the variables in the model are statistically significant except for age and the interaction term ($ag{e}_{it}\ast gende{r}_{it}$). However, the age coefficient is positively related to awareness. The age of the respondents can determine how they perceive food safety risks associated with the accumulation of experience. It is opined that individuals would become more aware of aflatoxin as they grow older due to exposure to information [9]. As a result, aflatoxin awareness campaigns should consider targeting older demographics to enhance overall awareness campaign levels. The result shows the presence of gender disparity in aflatoxin awareness, with males being less likely to be aware of aflatoxin compared to females. Other studies have found that females usually possess greater knowledge and understanding of aflatoxin contamination and food safety practices [56,57]. Another plausible explanation for gender disparity in aflatoxin awareness can be related to the dominant role of females in culinary activities in most households.

Concerning the impact of education, the results showed that individuals with higher education levels (University or diploma education) are more likely to be informed of the risk associated with aflatoxin compared to those with no higher education. Education serves as a key determinant in aflatoxin awareness levels and further suggests that targeted educational initiatives can effectively increase awareness among the population about the detrimental health effects of aflatoxin contamination [9]. Other sources of information about aflatoxin, such as the media, are also crucial to educating and increasing the public’s awareness about aflatoxin contamination. Dosman et al. [58] showed the positive impact of print media on creating awareness and perception about the risk of consuming contaminated food items. However, our results highlight that those who receive information through social media are more likely to be aware of aflatoxin than those who receive it on other media platforms (television, radio, and newspapers). This is expected due to the proliferation of social media usage compared to other media platforms in swift information dissemination. Considering the technological age, we occupy, social media is a powerful tool for disseminating well-tailored aflatoxin awareness campaigns because social media influences an individual’s way of life both online and offline [59]. Our results emphasize the need for organizations and authorities to harness the potential of social media to reach a broader audience about aflatoxin risk.

4. Conclusions

This study confirmed the prevalence of AFB1 in chili marketed in Oman. However, the levels were below the USFDA maximum tolerance level. This research indicates that 11% of red chili flakes and 34% of red chili powder surpassed the critical safety threshold of 10 ppb for AFB1, as established by Oman Legislation. This underscores the importance of using dried red chili pods free from aflatoxin to reduce the risk of contamination in chili products.

The study also revealed various chili consumption preferences among the participants. Overall, 49% of respondents desired chili in all its forms, while 40% preferred powdered and liquid forms and 10% were passionate about dried red chili pods. Most customers (68.8%) preferred buying chili from supermarkets/hypermarkets, with local markets also recognized as key suppliers. A substantial percentage of respondents (81.5%) expressed confidence in well-established brands, suggesting a preference for packaging explicitly associated with such companies.

The level of knowledge of aflatoxin is subject to several variables, such as education, gender, and social media use. Most participants (83.5%) expressed a need for more understanding of aflatoxin, with those with a university or diploma education demonstrating the most significant awareness. The presence of aflatoxin B1 in dried red chili pods in Oman presents potential health hazards due to mold contamination, with red chili powder exhibiting the highest incidence. A considerable proportion of participants (55.2%) said university news releases, seminars, or training facilitated their acquisition of information about aflatoxins. A notable segment (37.9%) also reported acquiring knowledge through social media platforms. More than half (51.6%) of participants expressed the belief that cooking has the potential to eradicate aflatoxin contamination. However, they acknowledged that roasting and pan-frying methods do not entirely eliminate the toxin. The overwhelming majority of responders (93.5%) recognize the crucial significance of storage conditions in mitigating aflatoxin contamination, demonstrating a high level of understanding and expertise in this domain.

In conclusion, the study suggests that factors such as age, gender, education, and social media influence aflatoxin awareness. To manage aflatoxin risks in food products effectively, it is imperative to prioritize enhancing knowledge among older populations and implementing comprehensive monitoring systems throughout the supply chain.