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Review

Research Progress on the Improvement of Farmland Soil Quality by Green Manure

by
Yulong Wang
1,2,
Aizhong Yu
1,2,*,
Yongpan Shang
1,2,
Pengfei Wang
1,2,
Feng Wang
1,2,
Bo Yin
1,2,
Yalong Liu
1,2,
Dongling Zhang
1,2 and
Qiang Chai
1,2
1
College of Agronomy, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China
2
State Key Laboratory of Aridland Crop Science, Lanzhou 730070, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2025, 15(7), 768; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15070768
Submission received: 27 February 2025 / Revised: 27 March 2025 / Accepted: 31 March 2025 / Published: 2 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Chemical Properties and Soil Conservation in Agriculture)
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Abstract

:
Long-term intensive agricultural management practices have led to a continuous decline in farmland soil quality, posing a serious threat to food security and agricultural sustainability. Green manure, as a natural, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly cover crop, plays a significant role in enhancing soil quality, ensuring food security, and promoting sustainable agricultural development. The improvement of soil quality by green manure is primarily manifested in the enhancement of soil physical, chemical, and biological properties. Specifically, it increases soil organic matter content, optimizes soil structure, enhances nutrient cycling, and improves microbial community composition and metabolic activity. The integration of green manure with agronomic practices such as intercropping, crop rotation, conservation tillage, reduced fertilizer application, and organic material incorporation demonstrates its potential in addressing agricultural development challenges, particularly through its contributions to soil quality improvement, crop yield stabilization, water and nutrient use efficiency enhancement, fertilizer input reduction, and agricultural greenhouse gas emission mitigation. However, despite substantial evidence from both research and practical applications confirming the benefits of green manure, its large-scale adoption faces numerous challenges, including regional variability in application effectiveness, low farmer acceptance, and insufficient extension technologies. Future research should further clarify the synergistic mechanism between green manure and agronomic measures such as intercropping, crop rotation, conservation tillage, reduced fertilization and organic material return to field. This will help explore the role of green manure in addressing the challenges of soil degradation, climate change and food security, develop green manure varieties adapted to different ecological conditions, and optimize green manure planting and management technologies. Governments should comprehensively promote the implementation of green manure technologies through economic incentives, technology extension, and educational training programs. The integration of scientific research, policy support, and technological innovation is expected to establish green manure as a crucial driving force for facilitating the global transition towards sustainable agriculture.

1. Introduction

Farmland soil serves as the fundamental basis for agricultural production, playing a pivotal role in ensuring food security, sustainable agricultural practices, and ecological balance [1,2]. However, long-term intensive agricultural management practices have led to a persistent decline in farmland soil quality across numerous regions worldwide, posing a substantial threat to global food security and agricultural sustainability [3,4]. Taking the black soil of Northeast China as an example, this region is characterized by its black or dark black humus topsoil layer, which is renowned for its favorable properties and high fertility, earning it the title of “the giant panda of arable land”. However, after decades of intensive cultivation and utilization, the black soil has exhibited phenomena such as “thinning, nutrient depletion, and hardening”. The eroded area post-cultivation has reached 217,000 square kilometers, with the typical black soil region losing an average of 0.3 to 1 cm of topsoil annually. The thickness of the black soil layer has decreased from an initial 60 to 70 cm to the current 20 to 30 cm. In some areas, after 40 years of cultivation, the soil organic matter content has declined by 50% and the soil bulk density has increased by 34% [5]. Therefore, identifying rational soil management strategies is of significant importance for enhancing soil quality, ensuring food security, and promoting sustainable agricultural development. Among the various measures to combat soil degradation, green manure has garnered widespread attention due to its natural, economical, and environmentally friendly characteristics. Long-term practical evidence has demonstrated that green manure can significantly enhance organic matter and nutrient content in farmland, reduce chemical fertilizer input, improve soil erosion resistance, suppress soil pests, diseases, and weeds, as well as promote soil microbial activity [6,7,8,9,10,11]. Compared to traditional soil improvement methods (application of chemical fertilizers, bare fallow, straw returning and no-till farming), green manure offers long-term benefits and effectively reduces agricultural production costs and environmental pollution risks [8,12]. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the role and mechanisms by which green manure enhances farmland soil quality is conducive to its rational application, providing theoretical and practical support for the national strategy of “storing grain in the land and storing grain in technology”. In agricultural ecosystems, green manure can effectively improve soil aggregate structure and its stability, increase soil porosity, enhance the retention capacity of soil nutrients and moisture, and reduce soil erosion [13,14,15]. Green manure significantly increases soil organic matter content and nitrogen levels while also releasing other nutrients such as phosphorus and potassium through the decomposition of organic matter, thereby enhancing the soil’s nutrient supply capacity [6,7,16]. In the wheat-green manure double-cropping system, removal of aboveground green manure biomass combined with a 20% nitrogen reduction increased soil organic carbon and nitrogen stocks in the 0–20 cm layer by 7.4% and 13.2%, respectively [17]. Compared with maize monoculture, green manure intercropping enhanced soil organic matter and total nitrogen content by 8.5–14.3% and 4.4–9.5%, respectively [6]. Long-term field experiments demonstrated that fully incorporating post-wheat green manure reduced N2O emissions by an average of 17.7% in the subsequent maize rotation compared to stubble-only incorporation. Notably, no-till with green manure mulching achieved 12.2% lower emissions than full incorporation. The no-till with green manure mulching treatment increased soil mineral nitrogen content, with 72.3–92.4% of the total mineral nitrogen existing as aggregate-associated nitrogen [13].
Green manure also contributes to regulating soil pH and alleviating soil salinization [15]. Furthermore, green manure provides diverse carbon sources and energy for soil microorganisms, while creating a suitable habitat for microbial life by improving soil aeration and water retention, thereby promoting microbial diversity and further optimizing soil nutrient cycling processes [18,19,20]. In summary, green manure can enhance soil quality by improving the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil. Amidst the pressing challenges of soil degradation and food security, it is essential to elucidate the mechanisms through which green manure enhances soil quality, evaluate its comprehensive effects on soil improvement, and identify the limitations and challenges associated with its current application. To address these knowledge gaps, this narrative review synthesizes evidence from seminal studies and key long-term experiments through critical interpretive analysis, rather than employing systematic review methodology. While not following PRISMA protocols, we prioritized (1) landmark papers establishing fundamental mechanisms, (2) recent high-impact studies (2016–2025), and (3) geographically representative cases from major agricultural systems. This is of paramount importance for enhancing the overall health of agricultural ecosystems and fostering sustainable crop production. This paper systematically reviews the roles and mechanisms by which green manure enhances farmland soil quality, evaluates its comprehensive effects on soil improvement, analyzes the limitations and challenges in current green manure research, and proposes key future research directions and optimization strategies. The aim is to provide a theoretical foundation and technical support for utilizing green manure to improve farmland soil quality and promote its widespread application.

2. Types and Characteristics of Green Manure

Green manure refers to organic fertilizer derived from fresh green plant materials used in agricultural production. It can be classified as leguminous and non-leguminous green manure based on botanical taxonomy. Leguminous green manure is the most widely utilized category of green manure crops, with common species including milk vetch, alfalfa, sweet clover, and pea. The primary characteristic of this type of green manure lies in its symbiotic relationship with rhizobia in the root system, enabling biological nitrogen fixation to capture atmospheric nitrogen, thereby directly replenishing available nitrogen in the soil and reducing the need for chemical fertilizers [20,21,22]. Non-leguminous green manure includes species such as rapeseed, buckwheat, rye, and barnyard grass. Although these lack nitrogen-fixing capabilities, they offer unique advantages in increasing soil organic matter, suppressing soil-borne diseases, and improving soil structure. With strong soil coverage capacity and stress resistance, they provide targeted improvements for specific soil types and serve as effective complements to leguminous green manure [23,24,25] (Table 1). The selection of green manure crops should be based on a comprehensive evaluation of their biological characteristics, adaptability, and their role in improving soil quality. The growth cycles and environmental adaptability of different green manure crops exhibit significant variations [16,26,27]. For instance, milk vetch and Brassica napus are suitable as winter green manure crops, whereas Fagopyrum esculentum and Echinochloa crus-galli are more appropriate for cultivation during the summer season (Table 2). Green manure crops with longer growth periods demonstrate significant efficacy in ameliorating deep soil layers, whereas those with shorter growth cycles are advantageous for rapidly enhancing the organic matter and nutrient content of surface soils [28,29]. The nutrient content and decomposition characteristics of green manure crops directly influence their effectiveness in supplying soil nutrients. Legume green manures, characterized by their high protein content, can rapidly release nitrogen after incorporation, whereas non-leguminous green manures decompose more slowly, making them more suitable for long-term organic matter accumulation [30]. The diversity of green manure species offers a wide range of options for their application in agricultural practices. Different types of green manures possess unique biological characteristics, each exhibiting distinct advantages in improving soil quality, enhancing carbon and nitrogen storage, and optimizing ecological functions [31]. In practical applications, it is essential to select appropriate green manure seeds for cultivation based on specific soil conditions, climatic factors, and crop cultivation requirements, while also implementing scientific and rational integration with other agronomic practices. This approach aims to achieve continuous improvement of farmland soil quality and promote sustainable agricultural development.

3. Effects of Green Manure on Soil Quality

3.1. Effects of Green Manure on Soil Physicochemical Properties

Green manure, through its own life activities, activates and immobilizes environmental nutrients, introducing them into the soil and providing a rich source of organic matter (Figure 1). The diversity of green manure plant species determines the nature of the organic substances they contain [12]. Leguminous green manures exhibit higher nitrogen content and faster decomposition rates, enabling rapid nutrient release [20,21]. In contrast, gramineous green manures possess a relatively higher carbon-to-nitrogen ratio and undergo slower decomposition processes, facilitating the formation of stable organic matter components, thereby prolonging the retention time of soil organic matter [91,92,93]. The enhancement of soil organic matter not only directly influences soil fertility but also exerts positive effects on farmland ecosystems by improving soil physical, chemical, and biological properties [94,95]. Green manure can improve soil structure and its stability through multiple mechanisms. The well-developed and dense root systems of green manure can increase total soil porosity, reduce soil bulk density, and enhance soil permeability and hydraulic conductivity [96,97]. After green manure is incorporated into the soil, the organic matter and cementing substances produced during the decomposition of its residues serve as significant sources for the formation of soil aggregates. These organic matters and cementing substances, by binding with soil mineral particles, enhance the adhesion and flexibility of soil particles, promoting the formation and stability of aggregates. Consequently, they improve the soil’s capacity to store water and nutrients, thereby enhancing its resistance to erosion [14,98,99]. Furthermore, green manure plays a significant role in regulating soil pH and alleviating soil salinization, primarily through the decomposition process of plant residues and root exudates [27,100]. The organic acids released during the decomposition of green manure crop residues can neutralize alkaline substances in the soil, thereby effectively reducing soil pH [27]. Studies have demonstrated that, compared to bare soil, leguminous green manure reduces the pH of alkaline soil by 0.15–0.5 units, while non-leguminous green manure reduces the pH of alkaline soil by 0.2–0.4 units [13,101]. The diverse bioactive substances secreted by green manure roots play a regulatory role in the distribution and ionic balance of soil salts. Additionally, green manure regulates the ratio of sodium to potassium ions in the soil through root absorption and secretion, mitigating the toxic effects of sodium ions and thereby improving crop cultivation conditions in saline-alkali soils [102]. Simultaneously, the increase in organic matter content enhances the soil’s buffering capacity, effectively mitigating the impact of drastic pH fluctuations on crop growth [103,104]. Although green manure demonstrates multiple advantages in improving soil physicochemical properties, its effectiveness may vary across different soil types and climatic conditions [104]. Therefore, future research needs to further optimize the matching schemes between green manure crop species and soil conditions to achieve more precise soil improvement objectives.

3.2. Effects of Green Manure on Soil Biological Properties

Soil microorganisms are indispensable components of the soil ecosystem, performing multiple critical functions such as nutrient cycling, soil organic matter decomposition, pathogen control, and plant growth promotion. Their activity and diversity are essential for driving various functions of the soil ecosystem [105,106,107]. Green manure not only improves the physical and chemical properties of soil but also exerts significant effects on soil biological characteristics [6,7,8,9,10,11]. The organic matter and nutrients generated during the decomposition of green manure significantly enhance the activity and diversity of soil microbial communities (Figure 1) [108]. On one hand, green manure provides a rich carbon source, creating favorable conditions for the growth of heterotrophic microorganisms. On the other hand, its root exudates and residue degradation products are rich in various secondary metabolites, which can directly stimulate the proliferation of certain functional microorganisms [109]. For example, the decomposition of leguminous green manure can significantly increase the populations of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, and potassium-releasing bacteria, thereby enhancing the bioavailability of soil nutrients [12,110]. Soil enzymes, as key indicators of soil biological activity, directly reflect the efficiency of soil nutrient cycling and transformation [6,111]. The application of green manure not only significantly enhances the activities of cellulase, urease, and peroxidase in the soil but also indirectly boosts the overall activity level of soil enzymes by promoting the proliferation of microorganisms that secrete these enzymes [6,112]. This enhancement in enzyme activity facilitates the acceleration of organic matter decomposition and nutrient release, thereby improving the nutrient uptake capacity of crops [6]. Green manure enhances soil organic matter and improves soil structure, thereby providing a suitable habitat and abundant food sources for soil fauna [18,19]. The organic matter derived from green manure decomposition attracts various soil organisms, including nematodes and collembolans, whose activities further facilitate organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling [113]. Additionally, the decomposition of green manure residues releases a variety of secondary metabolites, such as flavonoids and phenolic compounds. These substances not only inhibit the growth of harmful soil bacteria and enhance microbial stress resistance but also create favorable conditions for the proliferation of beneficial microorganisms while regulating soil microbial metabolic pathways [12,18,114]. This mechanism is crucial for maintaining soil ecosystem balance and long-term soil health. However, the effects of different types of green manure on soil microorganisms vary depending on climate, soil texture, and management practices [104]. Future research should focus on the mechanisms by which different green manures influence specific functional microbial communities, optimizing green manure cultivation and management practices to maximize their contribution to soil ecosystem balance.

3.3. Effects of Green Manure on Soil Nutrient Cycling

Green manure, as a sustainable agricultural practice, effectively enhances soil fertility, promotes soil nutrient cycling, and improves the sustainability of agricultural production (Figure 1) [6,9,115]. The decomposition of green manure residues provides a significant amount of organic matter to the soil, releasing abundant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which serve as directly available nutrient sources for crop growth [6]. Leguminous green manures, through symbiotic nitrogen fixation with rhizobia, convert atmospheric nitrogen into mineral nitrogen that plants can readily utilize. This not only meets the growth requirements of the green manure itself but also provides a stable nitrogen source for subsequent crops [116,117,118]. During the decomposition of green manure residues, nitrogen is gradually released in the form of ammonium and nitrate, meeting the absorption needs of crops. The rational application of green manure can significantly reduce the use of chemical nitrogen fertilizers, thereby lowering the risk of nitrogen loss and improving soil nitrogen use efficiency [7,20,21,22]. Green manure enhances soil phosphorus availability through multiple pathways. On one hand, the root exudates of green manure contain organic acids that can dissolve calcium phosphate and other insoluble phosphorus compounds in the soil, increasing phosphorus bioavailability. On the other hand, the organic matter released during green manure decomposition can combine with phosphate ions to form stable organic phosphorus compounds, preventing excessive phosphorus fixation [119,120,121]. Additionally, green manure promotes the proliferation of phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms, which further release inorganic phosphorus through microbial metabolism, significantly improving phosphorus use efficiency [110]. Green manure also facilitates potassium cycling in the soil through biological and chemical pathways. Certain green manures with strong adsorption and release capacities, such as alfalfa and ryegrass, secrete organic substances with ion-exchange functions through their roots, releasing potassium from soil minerals and rapidly meeting crop growth demands, thereby reducing reliance on potassium fertilizers [12]. During green manure decomposition, micronutrients such as zinc, iron, manganese, and copper are gradually released into the soil, improving the nutrient supply balance for crops [30]. Furthermore, the decomposition of green manure biomass can chelate metal ions in the soil, reducing micronutrient loss while providing a sufficient nutritional foundation for rhizosphere microorganisms, further enhancing soil microbial activity [122]. Green manure plays a critical role in carbon cycling by increasing soil organic matter content. Cellulose and lignin in green manure residues are transformed into stable organic matter by microorganisms during decomposition, improving soil structure and enhancing water and nutrient retention capacities [13,14,15]. Carbon cycling and accumulation not only directly improve soil fertility but also provide a long-term energy source for soil microorganisms, contributing to the stability and sustainability of soil nutrient cycling systems [6,123]. The synchronization of nutrient release rates from green manure with crop demand is a critical factor influencing its effectiveness [30]. By selecting appropriate green manure species and incorporation timing, the release of nutrients can be aligned with crop growth peaks. Different green manure species vary in decomposition rates and nutrient release patterns, necessitating optimization based on soil type and crop requirements [19,30]. Moreover, large-scale green manure cultivation may occupy a portion of arable land, requiring a balance between economic and ecological benefits. Future research should focus on the following aspects: in-depth exploration of the microbial mechanisms underlying green manure’s promotion of soil nutrient cycling using genomics and metabolomics technologies; development of green manure germplasm resources adapted to different ecosystems; and integration of modern agricultural technologies to explore precision application models, thereby achieving efficient utilization of green manure.

4. Comprehensive Effects of Green Manure on Improving Farmland Soil Quality

4.1. Synergistic Effects of Green Manure with Other Agronomic Practices

Green manure, as a vital soil amendment, offers numerous benefits, including enhancing soil fertility, increasing soil organic matter content, and promoting nutrient cycling. It has been widely adopted in agricultural production [6,16,24]. However, the application of green manure alone cannot fully exploit its potential. Integrating green manure with region-specific agronomic practices is crucial for maximizing its benefits, improving soil quality, and enhancing the overall efficiency of agricultural production (Figure 2) (Table 3). Studies have shown that green manure exhibits significant synergistic effects when combined with crop rotation and intercropping systems [8,27,124]. Crop rotation effectively disrupts the life cycles of pests and diseases, reduces the accumulation of soil-borne pathogens, and improves soil physical structure [125,126]. However, long-term rotation with crops from the same family can lead to soil fertility decline and limited yield improvements [125]. Rotating green manure with grain crops not only provides a rich nitrogen source for subsequent crops, reducing external nitrogen inputs and increasing nitrogen use efficiency, but also enhances soil aggregate structure through root penetration, improving soil water and nutrient retention capacities [6,7,97]. In intercropping systems, the combination of green manure with cash crops optimizes planting structures, reduces risks associated with monoculture, improves land use efficiency, and elevates soil nitrogen levels. This approach prevents excessive nutrient depletion by main crops while promoting soil nutrient cycling through improvements in soil structure, microbial community characteristics, and soil enzyme activity [6,8]. Additionally, the integration of green manure with conservation tillage effectively enhances soil physicochemical properties, soil quality, crop yields, and resource use efficiency [115]. Research in arid oasis irrigation areas has demonstrated that no-till green manure mulching reduces bacterial diversity while increasing the relative abundance of dominant bacteria, thereby improving soil characteristics and overall soil quality [108]. Furthermore, no-till green manure mulching improves soil structure, increases soil moisture content, elevates soil nitrogen levels, and enhances water and nitrogen use efficiency. It also boosts crop yields while reducing CO2 and N2O emissions [108,115]. Green manure, due to its biological nitrogen fixation capabilities, is often combined with reduced nitrogen fertilizer application. Studies have shown that under no-till green manure mulching, a 20% reduction in nitrogen fertilizer application improves soil hydrothermal conditions and water productivity while maintaining crop yields and reducing carbon emissions [96]. Moreover, a 20% reduction in nitrogen application combined with mixed planting of common vetch and hairy vetch increases soil organic matter and nitrogen content. Mixed planting of common vetch and hairy vetch can replace 40% of chemical nitrogen fertilizer without compromising grain yield and nitrogen accumulation [7]. The combination of green manure with organic fertilizers further improves soil physicochemical properties, enhances water retention and aeration, and boosts soil microbial activity, effectively increasing soil fertility [29,127]. Research indicates that integrating green manure with crop residues in rotation systems increases crop yields, improves soil quality, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions [128,129]. In summary, the integration of green manure with other agronomic practices significantly enhances soil quality, reduces reliance on external chemical fertilizers, improves environmental outcomes, and increases crop yields. Therefore, through scientifically sound agricultural management practices, sustainable agricultural production can be achieved, promoting efficient resource utilization and cycling, and fostering the healthy development of agricultural ecosystems.

4.2. Adaptive Performance in Different Planting Regions and Conditions

The effectiveness of green manure application is influenced by various planting regions and soil conditions, leading to region-specific adaptive performance [104]. Factors such as climate conditions, soil types, and moisture availability significantly affect nutrient uptake, growth, and soil improvement capabilities of green manure crops [140,141,142]. Therefore, selecting appropriate green manure species and implementing scientific management based on regional soil types and climate conditions are crucial for maximizing the benefits of green manure. Climate conditions play a pivotal role in the adaptability of green manure crops. In warm and humid regions, leguminous green manure crops are particularly suitable due to their efficient nitrogen fixation under conditions of ample warmth and moisture. In southern regions, the rice-green manure rotation system is widely adopted, where leguminous green manure enhances soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, thereby reducing the need for chemical fertilizers [22]. Conversely, in cold and arid regions, low temperatures and limited precipitation make it suitable to cultivate cold- and drought-tolerant green manure crops, such as alfalfa and clover. These crops can thrive under limited moisture conditions, increase soil organic matter and nutrient content, improve soil structure, and enhance soil drought resistance [143,144]. Soil type also significantly influences the adaptability of green manure. In clayey soils, where soil particles are tightly packed and aeration is poor, root growth is often restricted. In such cases, selecting deep-rooted green manure crops can effectively improve soil permeability and facilitate the movement of water and nutrients [97,145]. On the other hand, sandy soils, characterized by larger soil particles, are prone to water and nutrient loss. Here, shallow-rooted and fast-growing green manure crops are more suitable. These crops can quickly cover the soil surface, reduce soil erosion, and provide organic matter through their root systems, thereby improving soil water retention capacity [146,147]. Furthermore, management practices under different planting conditions also affect the adaptability of green manure. In paddy fields, green manure is typically cultivated in rotation with rice. Through proper water management, the growth of both rice and green manure crops can be optimized, achieving effective soil improvement [148]. In dryland farming, the selection of green manure crops must consider drought tolerance and growth cycles to ensure their successful growth and functionality under arid conditions [143,144]. In these diverse environmental conditions, fertilization and irrigation management are equally critical. Rational water and nutrient management can promote the growth of green manure while enhancing its ability to improve soil structure and fertility [149,150,151,152]. In summary, the adaptive performance of green manure is influenced by multiple factors, including climate, soil type, and management practices. Selecting suitable green manure crops and implementing scientific management tailored to specific regional conditions can maximize soil improvement and crop yield benefits. This requires agricultural producers to flexibly adjust green manure application strategies based on local environmental characteristics, thereby achieving the goal of sustainable agricultural development.

4.3. The Feedback Effect of Soil Quality Improvement on Crop Yield and Quality

The enhancement of soil quality directly influences crop growth, yield, and quality (Figure 3) [153,154,155]. With the continuous advancement of agricultural practices, green manure has been widely adopted as an eco-friendly soil improvement measure. By increasing soil organic matter content, enhancing soil fertility, and improving soil structure, green manure positively impacts crop productivity and quality [27,156]. Research indicates that green manure not only improves soil quality but also effectively promotes crop growth and development, thereby enhancing crop yield and quality, which contributes to the sustainability of agricultural production [27,156]. Long-term application of green manure, replacing 0–40% of nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) in early-season rice and 0–20% of N and K in late-season rice, can maintain crop yield and improve soil quality. However, further increasing the substitution rates of N and K may reduce rice yield and accelerate soil quality degradation [154]. In arid oasis irrigation areas, studies have shown that incorporating green manure into the soil can effectively improve soil moisture content and nitrogen levels, promote maize root growth, maintain a higher leaf area index during the late growth stages, and subsequently enhance the net photosynthetic rate and yield of maize [115]. Additionally, planting and incorporating leguminous green manure can effectively ameliorate moderately soda saline-alkali soils, significantly improve soil fertility, provide inorganic nutrients to partially replace chemical fertilizers, and enhance the production of high-quality forage. This approach represents an effective and environmentally friendly improvement model, which is of great significance for stabilizing cultivated land area and ensuring food security [133]. Green manure as a single nitrogen source can achieve 81.1% of the conventional fertilization level, and combining green manure with a 40% reduction in nitrogen application can stabilize yield while increasing the total amino acid content of rice by 15.8%. Furthermore, it reduces carbon footprint, reactive nitrogen loss, and nitrogen footprint by 30.86%, 19.20%, and 9.65%, respectively [156]. Moreover, green manure can improve soil pH, reduce heavy metal accumulation, and further enhance crop safety and quality [6,123,156]. In summary, by improving soil quality, green manure promotes increased crop yield and enhanced quality, contributing to both crop production efficiency and sustainable agricultural development. Therefore, green manure holds significant application potential in modern agriculture, particularly in improving soil quality and achieving high-quality and high-yield crop production.

5. Limitations and Challenges in Current Research

5.1. Limitations in Research Regions

Although existing studies have demonstrated the significant role of green manure in improving soil quality, there are still limitations in the selection of research regions. The cultivation of winter green manure is beneficial for soil quality and ecosystem multifunctionality under tropical dryland rice rotation systems [157]. Studies in arid oasis irrigation areas of China have shown that incorporating green manure into fields significantly improves soil quality and crop yields, with no-till green manure providing outstanding surface coverage effects [108]. In the crop rotation systems of the Hetao Irrigation District in China, green manure can enhance the soil quality of the plow layer and increase wheat and maize yields without increasing greenhouse gas emissions [129]. Previous research has predominantly focused on specific farmland types and regional conditions, with limited studies conducted in arid, semi-arid, or extremely cold regions. This restricts the global applicability of current findings, particularly in areas with complex and diverse climatic conditions and soil types, where the underlying mechanisms remain underexplored. Additionally, the time scale of existing research is relatively short, with most studies being single-season or short-term experiments, rarely addressing the long-term impacts and cumulative effects of green manure on soil quality. Since soil quality improvement is typically a slow process, the limitations of short-term experiments may lead to underestimation or overestimation of the effects of green manure. Furthermore, the lack of standardized selection criteria for green manure species and management practices across different studies results in poor comparability and applicability of research findings. The ecological characteristics of green manure species, sowing times, and cultivation methods may significantly influence their effectiveness in enhancing soil quality, yet regional comparative studies in this regard are scarce. Therefore, future research should expand to more diverse geographical regions, particularly farmland under extreme climatic conditions. Simultaneously, long-term monitoring and multi-scale analysis methods should be adopted to comprehensively reveal the potential roles and adaptability of green manure.

5.2. Insufficient Depth in Mechanism Research

The potential of green manure in enhancing soil quality and promoting sustainable agricultural development has garnered widespread attention, but research on its fundamental mechanisms remains inadequate. Current studies on the core processes and intrinsic mechanisms of green manure in soil improvement mostly focus on surface-level descriptions or single mechanisms, lacking in-depth analysis of multi-dimensional and multi-level interactions. The core role of green manure lies in the organic matter provided during its decomposition. Although existing studies have confirmed that the decomposition of green manure residues can improve soil structure and increase soil organic carbon storage, the specific microbial-driven mechanisms underlying this process remain unclear. The decomposition rates of organic matter components in different green manures vary during microbial degradation, yet the dynamic impacts of these variations on nutrient release and carbon sequestration processes are still poorly quantified. Additionally, whether and how the secondary metabolites abundant in green manure contribute to the formation and stabilization of soil aggregates remains uncertain. The effects of green manure are not limited to organic matter input but also involve synergistic effects through the regulation of soil physical, chemical, and biological properties. However, most existing studies focus on single effects, such as the contribution of green manure to nutrient supply, while neglecting potential synergistic relationships among multiple mechanisms.

5.3. Challenges in Promotion and Application

The short-term economic benefits constrain farmers’ acceptance of green manure. Compared to directly cultivating cash crops, green manure cultivation often does not generate immediate economic income, making it difficult for farmers to observe its soil improvement effects in the short term. Additionally, green manure cultivation may occupy land resources, reducing the planting area of primary crops and further diminishing farmers’ economic returns. The technical complexity of green manure planting and management also limits its widespread adoption at the grassroots level. The selection of green manure varieties, sowing timing, cultivation methods, and crop rotation strategies need to be optimized based on soil conditions and climatic environments. However, many farmers lack the necessary technical knowledge and training. Furthermore, the absence of supportive policies and measures is a critical factor. Currently, in many developing countries and regions, policy incentives for green manure cultivation are insufficient, such as the lack of seed subsidies, technical training, and extension services. This reliance on individual farmers’ spontaneous and experimental attempts hinders the large-scale adoption of green manure. In the future, the promotion and application of green manure require strengthened economic incentives, simplified management techniques, and improved supportive policies to ensure its integration as a vital component of sustainable farmland management.

6. Future Research Directions

6.1. Strengthening Fundamental Mechanism Research on Green Manure

The role of green manure in enhancing soil quality and promoting sustainable agricultural development has been widely recognized. However, future research needs to further focus on its fundamental mechanisms to address current knowledge gaps and provide a scientific basis for broader applications. Future studies should utilize isotope tracing techniques to focus on the decomposition and transformation processes of green manure organic matter, quantifying its contribution to soil carbon and nitrogen transformation. Additionally, metagenomic sequencing should be employed to analyze soil microbial diversity and its regulatory mechanisms in soil carbon and nitrogen transformation processes. Currently, systematic research on the decomposition rates and nutrient release patterns of green manure under different soil and climatic conditions is lacking. Utilizing stable isotope labeling techniques, soil metabolomics, and molecular ecology methods can provide deeper insights into the decomposition pathways of green manure and its contributions to carbon and nitrogen cycling. Additionally, the role of secondary metabolites in different green manure crops remains unclear. Future research should focus on their potential contributions to the formation and stabilization of soil aggregates, providing a basis for optimizing green manure selection. The soil improvement effects of green manure result from the synergy of multiple mechanisms. Future studies should adopt a systemic approach to evaluate the comprehensive impacts of green manure on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties. For example, whether the nutrients released by green manure indirectly regulate microbial communities and enzyme activities by influencing soil pH, or whether they enhance water retention capacity while optimizing soil pore structure. These complex interactions may vary significantly under different environmental conditions, and they should be comprehensively assessed using a combination of field experiments and multivariate system modeling.

6.2. Enhancing Regionalized and Precision Management Technologies for Green Manure

The effectiveness of green manure application is significantly influenced by regional soil types, climatic conditions, and agricultural management practices. Therefore, developing regionalized and precision management technologies is crucial for the scientific application of green manure. Regionalized management requires optimizing the selection of green manure species and application methods based on the soil characteristics and climatic conditions of different areas. For instance, in acidic soil regions, green manure crops with strong acid tolerance should be selected, while in saline-alkali soils, salt-tolerant green manure crops should be prioritized. Additionally, the growth cycles and incorporation timing of green manure need to be adjusted according to the planting schedules of main crops to ensure synchronization with their growth cycles. Developing region-specific green manure application models can facilitate the precise promotion of green manure on a national scale. The advancement of precision management technologies relies on the application of modern agricultural technologies. Remote sensing, unmanned aerial vehicles, and geographic information systems (GIS) can dynamically monitor the growth status and coverage of green manure crops, providing data support for timely harvesting and incorporation. Meanwhile, sensor-based real-time soil monitoring technologies can help agricultural managers accurately assess soil moisture, nutrient levels, and organic matter content, offering a scientific basis for optimizing green manure application. Furthermore, intelligent precision fertilization and seeding equipment can achieve efficient integration of green manure and crop rotation systems, maximizing the utilization efficiency and economic benefits of green manure. Finally, to enhance the regional adaptability of green manure, it is essential to establish regional experimental stations covering different climatic zones and soil types. Multi-site experiments can help summarize optimal green manure application strategies. Combining regionalized management with precision management technologies can significantly improve the practical efficacy of green manure, providing robust support for sustainable agricultural development.

6.3. Promoting Green Manure Adoption and Policy Support

The widespread adoption of green manure is of great significance for improving farmland soil quality and achieving sustainable agricultural development. However, the promotion of green manure still faces multiple challenges at the technical, economic, and cognitive levels, which require policy support and societal participation to drive its comprehensive adoption. Improving policy incentives is a critical driver for green manure promotion. Governments at all levels can encourage farmers to cultivate and use green manure through economic measures such as direct subsidies, tax reductions, and compensation for yield gaps. Simultaneously, establishing special funds for green manure technology research and demonstration field construction can help farmers master scientific green manure management methods. At the policy level, creating reward and assessment systems for green manure planting and use, and incorporating green manure application into agricultural green development indicators, can provide long-term guarantees for its promotion. Moreover, strengthening technical training and awareness campaigns is essential. Agricultural extension departments can organize training sessions, technical lectures, and on-site demonstration activities to help farmers understand the significant benefits of green manure in improving soil quality and enhancing economic returns. Utilizing new media platforms to disseminate successful cases of green manure planting and management can increase farmers’ awareness and confidence, thereby boosting the acceptance and adoption rates of green manure at the grassroots level. Establishing a robust industry-academia-research collaboration system is vital for providing technical support for green manure promotion. Agricultural research institutions, universities, and enterprises should jointly develop green manure varieties with strong adaptability and formulate precise planting plans tailored to the soil and climatic conditions of different regions. Additionally, policy support is needed to strengthen the agricultural supply chain, ensuring the adequate supply of green manure seeds and machinery. Through policy support and multi-stakeholder collaboration, the promotion and application of green manure can be effectively advanced, providing critical support for agricultural green transformation and food security.

7. Summary and Prospects

As an eco-friendly agricultural management practice, green manure plays an irreplaceable role in enhancing soil quality and achieving sustainable agricultural development. This review systematically summarizes the multiple benefits of green manure in improving soil physical, chemical, and biological properties, including increasing soil organic matter content, optimizing soil structure, enhancing nutrient cycling, and promoting microbial diversity. These functions not only significantly improve soil productivity but also ensure the long-term stability of agricultural ecosystems. The widespread application of green manure also demonstrates its potential in addressing agricultural challenges, particularly in improving soil quality, ensuring crop yields, increasing water and fertilizer use efficiency, reducing chemical fertilizer inputs, and lowering agricultural greenhouse gas emissions. However, despite the well-documented benefits of green manure through research and practice, its large-scale promotion still faces numerous obstacles, such as regional variations in application effectiveness, low farmer acceptance, and insufficient promotion technologies. These issues present new research needs and practical challenges for the promotion and application of green manure. In the future, the role of green manure in agriculture will become more diversified, with its potential in precision agriculture and intelligent management deserving further exploration. Developing green manure varieties adapted to different ecological conditions, optimizing green manure planting management technologies, and improving operational efficiency in mechanized agriculture will be key directions for advancing green manure application. Meanwhile, policy support and institutional guarantees are crucial. Governments should promote the implementation of green manure technologies through economic incentives, technical extension, and educational training. In conclusion, the role of green manure in enhancing soil quality and promoting sustainable agricultural development cannot be overlooked. Future research should further explore the synergistic mechanisms between green manure and agricultural ecosystems and investigate the pathways through which green manure addresses climate change and food security challenges. Through the integration of scientific research, policy support, and technological innovation, green manure is expected to become a significant driving force for global agricultural green transformation.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.W., P.W. and Y.S.; methodology, P.W., A.Y. and Y.S.; software, Y.W. and P.W.; validation, F.W., B.Y., Y.L. and D.Z.; formal analysis, Y.W.; investigation, F.W., B.Y., Y.L. and D.Z.; resources, A.Y. and Q.C.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.W.; writing—review and editing, Y.W. and A.Y.; visualization, Y.W., B.Y., Y.L. and D.Z.; supervision, F.W.; project administration, A.Y. and Q.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2022YFD1900200), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32160524), the Fuxi Outstanding Talent Cultivation Program of Gansu Agricultural University (GAUfx-04J01), and the “Innovation Star” Project of Gansu Province (2025CXZX-753).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Acknowledgments

We thank all the authors for their contributions to this article and for the support of the Foundation Program. We also thank the State Key Laboratory of Aridland Crop Science for providing the platform. During the preparation of this manuscript, the authors utilized OpenAI’s ChatGPT (version GPT-4) for language polishing and improving the readability of the text. The AI tool was used solely for refining the language and did not contribute to the research design, data analysis, or interpretation of results. All content generated by the AI tool was carefully reviewed and edited by the authors to ensure accuracy and adherence to the scientific context. All scientific content and conclusions remain the sole responsibility of the authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Figure 1. The effect of green manure cultivation and utilization on farmland soil quality.
Figure 1. The effect of green manure cultivation and utilization on farmland soil quality.
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Agriculture 15 00768 g002
Figure 2. The synergistic effects of green manure with other agronomic practices.
Figure 2. The synergistic effects of green manure with other agronomic practices.
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Agriculture 15 00768 g003
Figure 3. Effect of soil quality improvement on crop yield and quality.
Figure 3. Effect of soil quality improvement on crop yield and quality.
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Table 1. Nutrient contribution of different green manure crops.
Table 1. Nutrient contribution of different green manure crops.
Green Manure CropGreen Manure TypeNutrient Contribution
Milk vetchLegumeNitrogen: 100–150 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 20–30 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 50–70 kg·ha−1 [32,33,34]
Rapeseed (Brassica napus)Non-legumeNitrogen: 60–90 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 15–25 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 40–60 kg·ha−1 [35,36,37]
Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum)Non-legumeNitrogen: 40–60 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 10–20 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 50–80 kg·ha−1 [38,39]
Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli)Non-legumeNitrogen: 30–50 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 10–15 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 30–50 kg·ha−1 [40,41]
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)LegumeNitrogen: 200–300 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 30–50 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 100–150 kg·ha−1 [42,43,44]
Red clover (Trifolium pratense)LegumeNitrogen: 150–200 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 20–30 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 80–120 kg·ha−1 [45,46]
White clover (Trifolium repens)LegumeNitrogen: 120–180 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 20–30 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 70–100 kg·ha−1 [47,48]
Ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum)Non-legumeNitrogen: 50–80 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 15–25 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 40–60 kg·ha−1 [49,50,51]
Oats (Avena sativa)Non-legumeNitrogen: 60–90 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 20–30 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 70–100 kg·ha−1 [52,53]
Mung bean (Vigna radiata)LegumeNitrogen: 80–120 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 15–25 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 50–80 kg·ha−1 [54,55]
Soybean (Glycine max)LegumeNitrogen: 150–200 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 30–40 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 100–150 kg·ha−1 [56,57]
Lupin (Lupinus spp.)LegumeNitrogen: 100–150 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 20–30 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 60–90 kg·ha−1 [58,59]
Pea (Pisum sativum)LegumeNitrogen: 90–130 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 20–30 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 50–80 kg·ha−1 [60,61]
Faba bean (Vicia faba)LegumeNitrogen: 120–180 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 25–35 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 80–120 kg·ha−1 [62,63]
Sesbania (Sesbania spp.)LegumeNitrogen: 100–150 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 20–30 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 60–90 kg·ha−1 [64,65]
Sweet Clover (Melilotus spp.)LegumeNitrogen: 100–150 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 20–30 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 60–90 kg·ha−1 [66,67]
Hairy vetch (Vicia villosa)LegumeNitrogen: 120–180 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 20–30 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 70–100 kg·ha−1 [68]
Rye (Secale cereale)Non-legumeNitrogen: 50–80 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 15–25 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 60–90 kg·ha−1 [69,70]
Barley (Hordeum vulgare)Non-legumeNitrogen: 60–90 kg·ha−1, Phosphorus: 20–30 kg·ha−1, Potassium: 70–100 kg·ha−1 [71]
Table 2. Growth cycles, suitable seasons, and main characteristics of different green manure crops.
Table 2. Growth cycles, suitable seasons, and main characteristics of different green manure crops.
Green Manure CropGreen Manure TypeGrowth CycleSuitable SeasonKey Characteristics
Milk vetchLegumeShort (3–4 months)WinterCold-tolerant, strong nitrogen fixation, improves soil structure [72]
Rapeseed (Brassica napus)Non-legumeShort (3–4 months)WinterCold-tolerant, fast-growing, suppresses weeds, increases soil organic matter [73]
Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum)Non-legumeShort (2–3 months)SummerHeat-tolerant, fast-growing, suitable for short-term rotation, improves soil aeration [74]
Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli)Non-legumeShort (2–3 months)SummerHeat and moisture-tolerant, fast-growing, suitable for wet environments, provides soil cover [75]
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)LegumeLong (6–12 months)Spring/AutumnPerennial, strong nitrogen fixation, suitable for long-term rotation, improves soil fertility [76]
Red clover (Trifolium pratense)LegumeMedium (4–6 months)Spring/AutumnCold and drought-tolerant, strong nitrogen fixation, suitable for rotation with grasses [77]
White clover (Trifolium repens)LegumeMedium (4–6 months)Spring/AutumnCold and drought-tolerant, strong nitrogen fixation, suppresses weeds [78]
Ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum)Non-legumeShort (3–4 months)WinterCold-tolerant, fast-growing, suitable as winter cover crop, prevents soil erosion [79]
Oats (Avena sativa)Non-legumeShort (3–4 months)WinterCold-tolerant, fast-growing, increases soil organic matter [80]
Mung bean (Vigna radiata)LegumeShort (2–3 months)SummerHeat-tolerant, fast-growing, suitable for short-term rotation, fixes nitrogen [81]
Soybean (Glycine max)LegumeMedium (4–5 months)SummerHeat-tolerant, strong nitrogen fixation, significantly improves soil fertility [82]
Lupin (Lupinus spp.)LegumeMedium (4–6 months)Spring/AutumnTolerates poor soils, strong nitrogen fixation, improves soil fertility [83]
Pea (Pisum sativum)LegumeShort (3–4 months)WinterCold-tolerant, strong nitrogen fixation, increases soil organic matter [84]
Faba bean (Vicia faba)LegumeMedium (4–5 months)WinterCold-tolerant, strong nitrogen fixation, improves soil structure [85]
Sesbania (Sesbania spp.)LegumeShort (2–3 months)SummerHeat and moisture-tolerant, fast-growing, fixes nitrogen, improves soil structure [86]
Sweet clover (Melilotus spp.)LegumeMedium (4–6 months)Spring/AutumnDrought and cold-tolerant, strong nitrogen fixation, improves soil fertility [87]
Hairy vetch (Vicia villosa)LegumeMedium (4–6 months)WinterCold-tolerant, strong nitrogen fixation, increases soil organic matter [88]
Rye (Secale cereale)Non-legumeShort (3–4 months)WinterCold-tolerant, fast-growing, suitable as winter cover crop, prevents soil erosion [89]
Barley (Hordeum vulgare)Non-legumeShort (3–4 months)WinterCold-tolerant, fast-growing, increases soil organic matter [90]
Table 3. Suitable agronomic combinations under different soil conditions.
Table 3. Suitable agronomic combinations under different soil conditions.
Soil ConditionIdeal Agronomic CombinationRationale
Nutrient-Deficient SoilsGreen manure + chemical fertilizers Legumes fix nitrogen; chemical fertilizers provide immediate nutrients, improving fertility and yields [44,130].
Acidic Soils (Low pH)Green manure + lime applicationGreen manure improves soil structure; lime neutralizes acidity, creating a better growth environment [131,132].
Saline or Alkaline SoilsSalt-tolerant green manure + gypsum applicationSalt-tolerant green manure reduces salinity; gypsum improves soil structure and reduces sodium [133,134].
Compacted or Poorly Structured SoilsDeep-rooted green manure + reduced tillageDeep roots break up compaction; reduced tillage minimizes disturbance, enhancing soil structure [108,135].
Soils with Low Microbial ActivityGreen manure + microbial inoculantsDiverse green manure enhances biodiversity; microbial inoculants promote nutrient cycling [44,136,137].
Erosion-Prone SoilsFast-growing green manure + conservation practices Fast-growing green manure provides ground cover; conservation practices stabilize soil and reduce erosion [138,139].
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Wang, Y.; Yu, A.; Shang, Y.; Wang, P.; Wang, F.; Yin, B.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, D.; Chai, Q. Research Progress on the Improvement of Farmland Soil Quality by Green Manure. Agriculture 2025, 15, 768. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15070768

AMA Style

Wang Y, Yu A, Shang Y, Wang P, Wang F, Yin B, Liu Y, Zhang D, Chai Q. Research Progress on the Improvement of Farmland Soil Quality by Green Manure. Agriculture. 2025; 15(7):768. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15070768

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wang, Yulong, Aizhong Yu, Yongpan Shang, Pengfei Wang, Feng Wang, Bo Yin, Yalong Liu, Dongling Zhang, and Qiang Chai. 2025. "Research Progress on the Improvement of Farmland Soil Quality by Green Manure" Agriculture 15, no. 7: 768. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15070768

APA Style

Wang, Y., Yu, A., Shang, Y., Wang, P., Wang, F., Yin, B., Liu, Y., Zhang, D., & Chai, Q. (2025). Research Progress on the Improvement of Farmland Soil Quality by Green Manure. Agriculture, 15(7), 768. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture15070768

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