Author Contributions
Conceptualization, R.V. and H.L.; methodology, R.V.; software, R.V.; validation, H.L., R.V.C.-S., N.V. and A.E.-C.; formal analysis, R.V.C.-S., N.V. and A.E.-C.; investigation, R.V.; resources, R.V. and H.L.; data curation, H.L. and A.E.-C.; writing—original draft preparation, R.V. and H.L.; writing—review and editing, R.V.C.-S., N.V. and A.E.-C.; visualization, R.V.; supervision, H.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Figure 1.
General architecture of the SONAR system.
Figure 1.
General architecture of the SONAR system.
Figure 2.
Cavitation threshold for projectors.
Figure 2.
Cavitation threshold for projectors.
Figure 3.
Cavitation as a function of and f.
Figure 3.
Cavitation as a function of and f.
Figure 4.
Sound pressure waveform before and after cavitation. (a) No cavitation, (b) threshold of cavitation, (c) mild cavitation, (d) violent cavitation.
Figure 4.
Sound pressure waveform before and after cavitation. (a) No cavitation, (b) threshold of cavitation, (c) mild cavitation, (d) violent cavitation.
Figure 5.
Tonpilz-type transducer.
Figure 5.
Tonpilz-type transducer.
Figure 6.
The behavior of piezoelectric material: (a) generator, (b) motor.
Figure 6.
The behavior of piezoelectric material: (a) generator, (b) motor.
Figure 7.
Characteristics of transducer: (a) frequency response, (b) equivalent electrical circuit.
Figure 7.
Characteristics of transducer: (a) frequency response, (b) equivalent electrical circuit.
Figure 8.
Concentrated transducer electrical circuit.
Figure 8.
Concentrated transducer electrical circuit.
Figure 9.
Transducer tuning electrical circuits. (a) parallel tuning, (b) series tuning.
Figure 9.
Transducer tuning electrical circuits. (a) parallel tuning, (b) series tuning.
Figure 10.
Equipment of impedance measurement of the transducer.
Figure 10.
Equipment of impedance measurement of the transducer.
Figure 11.
Transducer impedance measurement in air and water.
Figure 11.
Transducer impedance measurement in air and water.
Figure 12.
SPA general system.
Figure 12.
SPA general system.
Figure 13.
SMPA block diagram.
Figure 13.
SMPA block diagram.
Figure 14.
Comparison between carrier and modulation signal.
Figure 14.
Comparison between carrier and modulation signal.
Figure 15.
Ideal transformer with connected transducer.
Figure 15.
Ideal transformer with connected transducer.
Figure 16.
Filter types and their equivalent circuits SE.
Figure 16.
Filter types and their equivalent circuits SE.
Figure 17.
SPA topology for the active SONAR transmission system.
Figure 17.
SPA topology for the active SONAR transmission system.
Figure 18.
Types of CW transmission pulses: (a) shapeless pulse, (b) shaped pulse.
Figure 18.
Types of CW transmission pulses: (a) shapeless pulse, (b) shaped pulse.
Figure 19.
Types of FM transmission pulses: (a) FM pulse, (b) LFM pulse, (c) NLFM pulse, and (d) HFM pulse.
Figure 19.
Types of FM transmission pulses: (a) FM pulse, (b) LFM pulse, (c) NLFM pulse, and (d) HFM pulse.
Figure 20.
A typical graph of TVR.
Figure 20.
A typical graph of TVR.
Figure 21.
Proposed TVR measurement system.
Figure 21.
Proposed TVR measurement system.
Figure 22.
Calibrated hydrophone B&K.
Figure 22.
Calibrated hydrophone B&K.
Figure 23.
Hydrophone frequency response.
Figure 23.
Hydrophone frequency response.
Figure 24.
SPA implementation with the tonpilz transducer.
Figure 24.
SPA implementation with the tonpilz transducer.
Figure 25.
Full-bridge inverter output voltage, .
Figure 25.
Full-bridge inverter output voltage, .
Figure 26.
Electrical power W, CW pulse, Ma = 0.9.
Figure 26.
Electrical power W, CW pulse, Ma = 0.9.
Figure 27.
Amount of THD-F, CW pulse, .
Figure 27.
Amount of THD-F, CW pulse, .
Figure 28.
Hydroacoustic tank of the laboratory of underwater acoustics.
Figure 28.
Hydroacoustic tank of the laboratory of underwater acoustics.
Figure 29.
Mounting of the transducer with a waterproof camera.
Figure 29.
Mounting of the transducer with a waterproof camera.
Figure 30.
Cavitation in transducer tonpilz.
Figure 30.
Cavitation in transducer tonpilz.
Figure 31.
Mounting of transducer and hydrophone.
Figure 31.
Mounting of transducer and hydrophone.
Figure 32.
Instruments and measuring equipment.
Figure 32.
Instruments and measuring equipment.
Figure 33.
waveform with cavitation, Ma = 0.9.
Figure 33.
waveform with cavitation, Ma = 0.9.
Figure 34.
TVR of the SONAR system with tonpilz transducer.
Figure 34.
TVR of the SONAR system with tonpilz transducer.
Figure 35.
TVR of the SONAR system with different values of .
Figure 35.
TVR of the SONAR system with different values of .
Figure 36.
SPL of the SONAR system with different values of .
Figure 36.
SPL of the SONAR system with different values of .
Table 1.
Transducer measurements values.
Table 1.
Transducer measurements values.
Medium | ()
| ()
| ()
| (°)
|
---|
Air | 12.8 | 14.3 | 816.8 | −47.25 |
Water | 11.6 | 14.3 | 1427 | −67.90 |
Table 2.
Conduction characteristics of LPA.
Table 2.
Conduction characteristics of LPA.
Class | Conduction Angle |
---|
A | Complete cycle |
B | Half cycle |
AB | More that |
C | Less that de |
Table 3.
Characteristics of SPA topologies.
Table 3.
Characteristics of SPA topologies.
Topology | Class B | Class D | Full-Bridge | Multilevel | T-Type |
---|
m | 2 | 2 | 3 | | 3 |
Vout | | | | | |
Transistors | 2 | 2 | 4 | ( ()) | 6 |
THD | High | High | Low | Low | Low |
PWM | Bipolar | Bipolar | Unipolar | Unipolar | Unipolar |
Power | <1 kW | <1 kW | <100 kW | <100 kW | <1 kW |
Table 4.
Electrical power and THD-F of vs. Ma.
Table 4.
Electrical power and THD-F of vs. Ma.
| | | Lag (°) | | |
---|
0.1 | 12.1 | 20.9 | 66.98 | 0.098 | 3.18 |
0.2 | 83.1 | 62.6 | 53.58 | 3.08 | 4.15 |
0.3 | 181 | 106 | 35.16 | 15.68 | 3.27 |
0.4 | 266 | 142 | 31.32 | 32.26 | 3.04 |
0.5 | 381 | 195 | 28.12 | 65.52 | 2.65 |
0.6 | 511 | 248 | 25.74 | 114.15 | 2.84 |
0.7 | 677 | 318 | 24.40 | 196.05 | 2.93 |
0.8 | 858 | 405 | 23.83 | 317.86 | 3.24 |
0.9 | 1100 | 565 | 23.44 | 570.21 | 4.52 |
Table 5.
Observation of transducer cavitation.
Table 5.
Observation of transducer cavitation.
| | |
---|
| |
---|
Cavitation | Cavitation |
---|
0.1 | × | × |
0.2 | × | × |
0.3 | × | × |
0.4 | × | × |
0.5 | × | × |
0.6 | × | ✓ |
0.7 | × | ✓ |
0.8 | ✓ | ✓ |
0.9 | ✓ | ✓ |
Table 6.
THD-F of vs. Ma.
Table 6.
THD-F of vs. Ma.
| ()
| (%)
|
---|
0.1 | 0.019 | 2.33 |
0.2 | 0.134 | 2.93 |
0.3 | 0.269 | 3.12 |
0.4 | 0.395 | 3.20 |
0.5 | 0.561 | 3.85 |
0.6 | 0.754 | 4.05 |
0.7 | 0.870 | 6.17 |
0.8 | 0.999 | 10.2 |
0.9 | 1.07 | 18.5 |