Teacher Training for Religious Education in Türkiye: Policy, Debate, and Diversity

Abstract

Teacher education is debated all over the world, and a part of this debate concerns the quality of teacher education. For religious education (RE) teacher education, however, the debate is not only about quality but also about growing diversity. In this article, we explore how RE teachers have been educated and how this has changed in Türkiye. How religious diversity has been integrated into the RE teacher education system is also explored. By teacher education/training, we mean initial (not in-service) teacher education, and by RE, we mean different types of RE provided in schools in Türkiye: compulsory, optional, and vocational RE. The findings reveal that there have been frequent changes, back-and-forth reforms, and a lack of RE teacher education philosophy in Türkiye. Therefore, establishing a consistent RE teacher education policy remains a serious challenge. Moreover, it seems that religious diversity has not been well integrated into RE teacher education in Türkiye. Currently, theology faculties only offer two courses which are overtly related to religious diversity, and both of them approach religious diversity from a historical perspective. It seems that there is a need to rethink the program structures of theology faculties to reform RE teacher education. Theology faculties may offer several programs in line with employment areas. In this way, religious diversity might also become better integrated into compulsory RE teacher education programs. However, this process should be carried out with a scientific understanding by conducting stakeholder and needs analyses.

1. Introduction

Teachers are a vital component of the education system, and teacher education is important for quality education. Teacher education, therefore, is debated and researched all over the world. A part of this debate concerns the quality of teacher education (Caena 2014; Cooper and Alvarado 2006). Teacher education for religious education (RE hereafter) is no exception. For RE teacher education, however, the debate is not only about quality but also about growing diversity in modern societies and its relation to RE teacher education (von Berglund et al. 2023; Bondevik et al. 2020; Koukounaras Liagkis 2023; von Brömssen et al. 2023). As the literature on RE teacher education indicates, these debates take place everywhere, not only in Europe, and there are shared concerns, pressures, and potential solutions (Berglund et al. 2023; Fraser-Pearce and Fraser 2023; Kurt 2024).

In this article, we explore RE teacher education and its relationship with diversity in Türkiye. The research question is as follows: “how have RE teachers been educated in Türkiye, and how has religious diversity been integrated in RE teacher education?”

2. Methodology

This study was designed as a qualitative case study. Case studies allow for an in-depth examination of a phenomenon within its own context. In qualitative case studies, one or more cases are examined in depth. Various factors related to a situation (environment, individuals, events, processes, etc.) are examined, focusing on how they affect the relevant situation. In addition, a long period of time may be required to understand the changes and processes that occur in a situation (Yıldırım and Şimşek 2016). In this context, the issue of training RE teachers in Türkiye in the context of diversity and various factors (historical process, policies, practices, etc.) affecting it are explored. A document analysis method was used in this study. Determining which documents are important is closely related to the research question. In this study, various data sources, such as books, articles, theses, legal regulations, curricula, and field studies that address RE teacher education in Türkiye historically and currently, were used and descriptively analysed.

Teacher education (or teacher training), here, denotes initial (also known as pre-service) teacher education. Other forms of teacher education, such as in-service teacher education, are not included. Religious education (RE) is used as a general term here, referring to a curriculum subject which deals with religion(s) (and worldviews). RE is often referred to with the terms confessional and non-confessional. Even though the dichotomy between confessional and non-confessional RE is complex and may not always be helpful (Gilliat-Ray 2023; von Brömssen et al. 2023), confessional RE here means teaching through the framework of a particular religion/denomination, while non-confessional RE denotes objectively teaching about religion(s) and worldviews.

By diversity, we mean “religious diversity or religious plurality”, which means that there is a sort of religious diversity in modern societies (Jackson 2004; Skeie 2006). Regarding diversity, Türkiye does not have a society as diverse as some Western countries. The vast majority of the population is still defined as Muslim, and it is estimated that the non-Muslim population comprises less than one per cent of the population. Yet, there is still diversity within society. The majority of the population observes Sunni Islam, but “Sunni” is itself an umbrella term comprising different sects and understandings, and there are also Alevi and Shia Muslims living in Türkiye. Moreover, in Türkiye, debates about religion have often been between the secular/laic and religious/conservative segments of society, which have shaped politics and education (Berkes 1964; Ete and Yargı 2023; Nişancı 2023). Even though Türkiye does not have as diverse a society as some Western countries, through globalisation, migration, and the modern media of mass communication, people in Türkiye too are exposed to a plurality of religions, faiths, and ideas, which makes diversity within RE critical for understanding different religions and faiths.

Moreover, a compulsory RE course in Türkiye has been designed as an inclusive course about religions. It is called “Religious Culture and Ethics Knowledge” to emphasise that it aims to provide descriptive information about religions and encourage adopting moral values (AYM 1998, pp. 15–16). As compulsory RE courses are expected to be “sensitive, fair, inclusive, unbiased and impartial” (OSCE 2007, p. 45), diversity should be integrated into RE teacher education.

In this article, we will first explore the state of RE in schools in Türkiye to understand whether or not religious diversity should be integrated in RE teacher education. We will then move on to how RE teachers have been educated in Türkiye.

3. Religious Education in Schools

The history of RE in schools in Türkiye has been volatile, ranging from total absence to strict obligation (Ayhan 2004; Öcal 2017). Yet, since 1982, RE has been thriving in schools. Currently, there are three RE courses in schools in Türkiye: compulsory, optional, and vocational.

When the Republic of Türkiye was established in 1923, there were compulsory religion classes in schools, but they have been gradually removed from the curricula due to secular education policies. Religion courses returned to the primary school curriculum in 1949, lower secondary in 1956, and upper secondary in 1967. However, during this time, religious classes were not compulsory. In 1982, with the new constitution, a course titled “Religious Culture and Ethics Knowledge” (RCEK) became compulsory in schools. Since then, it has been a part of the curriculum and currently is taught 2 h a week from 4th to 12th grade in state and private schools (Ayhan 2004; Öcal 2017).

As can be seen above, RE was voluntary before 1982 in Türkiye. It became compulsory with Article 24 of the 1982 Constitution, which stated that

“Education and instruction in religion and ethics shall be conducted under state supervision and control. Religious culture and ethics instruction shall be compulsory in the curricula of primary and secondary schools. Other religious education and instruction shall be subject to the individual’s own desire, and in the case of minors, at the request of their legal representatives”.

(Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Anayasası 1982)

The first part of Article 24 refers to the compulsory RCEK. The second part, that is, “Other religious education and instruction shall be subject to the individual’s own desire, and in the case of minors, at the request of their legal representatives”, has been interpreted as a possibility of more voluntary/optional RE courses, apart from compulsory RCEK in schools (Ayhan 2004). In 2012, optional religious courses were introduced. Initially, three optional courses were sanctioned: “Holy Qur’an”, “The Life of Our Prophet”, and “Basic Religious Knowledge”. In 2023, more optional religious courses were added: “Those Who Shape Our Culture and Civilization” and “Moral and Citizenship Education” were added to the lower secondary optional course list; and “Classical Ethics Texts”, “The Meaning of the Holy Qur’an”, and “History of Turkish Thought” to the upper secondary optional course list (MEB 2023). These courses are taught in lower secondary (grades 5–8) and upper secondary schools (grades 9–12).

There have also been vocational religious courses in Turkish schools. These types of courses can only be found at Imam-Hatip Schools. These schools were established to train personnel responsible for religious services, such as imams and preachers (Tevhidi Tedrisat Kanunu 1924), but later transformed into mainstream educational institutions, which means that their graduates can pursue university degrees in non-religious as well as religious fields (Milli Eğitim Temel Kanunu 1973). Imam-Hatip Schools allocate around 25% of their curriculum to “vocational” religious courses such as Qur’an, Arabic, Life of the Prophet, Fiqh, Tafsir, History of Religions, Hadith, Creed, Theology, Rhetoric and Professional Practice, etc. Families prefer these schools because they offer more RE opportunities and provide a religious socialisation environment with their administrators, teachers, parent demographics, and architecture (Aşlamacı 2014; Zengin and Hendek 2023). In the past, these schools were closed, their numbers were reduced, and their graduates’ access to universities was restricted, but they still exist strongly today. The number of Imam-Hatip Schools has increased in recent years (MEB 2022).

As can be seen, there are three types of RE in schools in Türkiye. There are similarities and differences between them. Above all, the curricula of these courses have been prepared and approved by the Ministry of National Education. It means that faith communities or religious organisations, including the official religious organisation, the Presidency of Religious Affairs, do not have any official role in the preparation and approval of their curricula and textbooks. Moreover, as the Turkish education system is based on the principle of secularism (Milli Eğitim Temel Kanunu 1973), these courses must be regulated according to this principle.

However, there are also differences among these courses. The compulsory RCEK has been officially identified as an inclusive course about religions (Hendek 2019). The Constitutional Court stated that RCEK was made compulsory to “provide impartial and descriptive information about religions and to encourage the adoption of moral values”. The Court argued that RCEK includes “religious culture” instead of “religious education” to emphasise this purpose (AYM 1998, pp. 15–16), as the term “religious education” (din eğitimi) in Turkish refers to confessional teaching of a specific religion. The curricula of RCEK, too, state that it teaches Islam and other religions using a scientific and factual method based on these religions’ texts, sources, and assumptions (MEB 2018b, 2024). Even though whether RCEK adheres to these principles in practice is open to debate (AYM 2022; ECtHR 2014), and Jewish and Christian children are exempted from it (MEB 1990), which might give the impression that it is a course for Muslim children, it can still be described at least officially as a non-confessional course, that is, the impartial and descriptive study of religions. It means that teacher education for RCEK must include religious diversity.

The optional RE courses, though, can be seen as “confessional” courses because they aim to increase students’ religious commitment, as the constitution allows “religious education” provided it is offered as voluntary courses. The curriculum of Basic Religious Knowledge, for example, aims at “raising individuals who internalize the principles of faith, worship, and morality of the Islamic religion, take the Quran as a guide and take the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) as an example” (MEB 2018c, p. 8), which shows the confessional character of these courses.

Similarly, vocational RE courses at Imam-Hatip Schools can be described as confessional courses, as one of the functions of these schools is to train religious functionaries. The curriculum states that the vision of Imam-Hatip Schools’ vocational RE courses is

“to raise individuals who internalize the principles of faith, worship and morality of Islam; who take the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) as a model; who research, question and can produce solutions to problems using their minds in the light of the information they have acquired; who can apply worship; who can establish the balance between the world and the hereafter; who know the basic sources of Islam; who gain the ability to apply religious services; who can enlighten the society about religion and meet their needs regarding religious information”.

(MEB 2018a, p. 11)

It shows that, in Turkish schools, there are different types of RE. Even though some of these courses can be described as confessional, the compulsory RCEK seems to have a non-confessional approach to religion. This means religious diversity must be integrated into the RCEK teacher education system. Below, we explore RE teacher education in Türkiye. After a brief history of RE teacher education, we examine the content knowledge, focusing on religious diversity and pedagogical knowledge provided during RE teacher education.

4. Teacher Training for Religious Education

After the establishment of the Republic of Türkiye in 1923, the first theology faculty (ilahiyat fakültesi) was established at Dar-al Funun following the 1924 Unification of Education Act, whose Article 4 stated that a theology faculty would be established to raise “higher religious experts” (Tevhidi Tedrisat Kanunu 1924). Even though teacher education was not mentioned as an aim of the faculty, it was understood that its graduates could also work as RE teachers. Yet the faculty’s program did not include any course on teacher education (Z. S. Zengin 2011, pp. 145–50), which means that the program was heavily oriented towards “content knowledge” rather than “pedagogical knowledge”. The faculty, however, was ill-fated as it was abolished in 1933 when Dar-al Funun was reformed and became İstanbul University (Z. S. Zengin 2011). During the 1930s, RE was also gradually abolished from primary and secondary schools and Imam-Hatip Schools were closed.

After 16 years, in 1949, a new theology faculty was established at Ankara University (Ayhan 2004). Initially, the faculty did not include any course on teacher education, but in 1953, a two-hour “pedagogy” course was introduced in the 4th year of the faculty (Aydın 2016, p. 137). During the late 1940s and 1950s, RE courses were also slowly reintroduced into primary and secondary school curricula, and Imam-Hatip Schools were reopened, which created an increasing need for RE teachers. Partly because of this need, a new higher religious education institution was established. “Higher Islamic Institute” (Yüksek İslam Enstitüsü) was established in İstanbul in 1959 and later in different cities (Aydın 2016, p. 151). These institutes, whose number rose to 8 within 20 years, were not part of universities; they were under the control of the Ministry of National Education. Moreover, in 1971, a new faculty was established: the Islamic Sciences Faculty at Atatürk University, Erzurum (Ev 2017, p. 278). In other words, at the beginning of the 1970s, three higher religious education institutions offered similar programs (Kara 2017), all training RE teachers with limited courses devoted to pedagogical education. However, in 1972/1973, the Theology Faculty at Ankara University introduced pedagogical knowledge courses (Aydın 2016, pp. 140–41).

From 1972 onwards, pedagogical knowledge courses with teaching practice were also introduced into the programs of higher Islamic institutes, albeit under different names (Aydın 2016, p. 158), and students of the Islamic Sciences Faculty could also take similar pedagogical courses (Aydın 2016, pp. 171–72). In 1983, all these different institutions were transformed into and named theology faculties, offering the same program and including pedagogical knowledge courses.

A radical shift in teacher education in theology faculties took place in 1997/1998 when theology faculties started to offer two distinct programs: Primary Religious Culture and Ethics Knowledge Teaching Program (IDKAB: İlköğretim Din Kültürü ve Ahlak Bilgisi Öğretimi Programı) and Theology Program (İlahiyat Programı) (Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı 1997). With this reform, for the first time in Türkiye, RE teacher education was offered as a separate undergraduate program. The graduates of IDKAB could work as RCEK teachers at primary and lower secondary schools. Moreover, the pedagogical education courses were removed from the Theology Programs. Therefore, their graduates must attend a non-thesis one-and-a-half-year post-graduate teacher education program to become RE teachers at upper secondary schools and Imam-Hatip Schools (Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı 1997).

IDKAB was transferred to education faculties by the Council of Higher Education (YÖK: Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı) in 2006 (Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı 2007, p. 66) which can be seen as a realisation of the non-confessional character of RCEK teacher education (Hendek 2023), but it was transferred back to theology faculties in 2012 (Aydın 2016, p. 368) and then subsequently abolished altogether in 2014, by not admitting new students to this program (Aydın 2016, pp. 374–75). The pedagogical knowledge courses were also returned to Theology Programs in 2014 (Aydın 2016, p. 374). In this way, theology faculties have returned to the pre-1997 single-program model (M. Zengin 2022).

In Türkiye, since 2010, the Council of Higher Education has named new higher religious education faculties “İslami ilimler” (Islamic sciences) rather than “ilahiyat” (theology). Still, in terms of programs, there was no substantial difference between theology and Islamic sciences faculties (Nazıroğlu 2018, p. 187), and both offered pedagogical formation courses. Moreover, most Islamic sciences faculties have been renamed theology faculties in the last few years.

In Türkiye, there are also distance learning theology programs. In 1997/1998, distance learning theology education was first offered as a two-year associate degree (önlisans) (Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı 1997, p. 64). In 2006, a distance learning “Degree Completion Programme in Theology” (İLİTAM: İlahiyat Lisans Tamamlama Programı) was offered so that the graduates of a two-year associate degree program could obtain a bachelor’s degree in theology. İLİTAM graduates have all the rights enjoyed by Theology Program graduates, but the only difference is that İLİTAM programs do not include teacher education courses. Their graduates could take teacher education courses as a one-year course at the education faculties, known as the “Pedagogical Formation Certificate Program” (Pedagojik Formasyon Sertifika Programı) (hereafter, the certificate program), which is available for university graduates who did not obtain teacher education during their studies.

After this brief history, we will now focus on content and pedagogical knowledge provided by theology faculties.

4.1. Content Knowledge

Content education is an integral part of teacher education, as it provides teachers with “content knowledge”, that is, a teacher’s knowledge about the subject matter he/she will teach.

As can be seen, theology (and equivalent) faculties have been responsible for training teachers in the field of RE in Türkiye, apart from a short period between 2006 and 2012 when RE teachers were educated at education faculties. This raises questions about the content knowledge theology faculties provide for teachers. This is a pressing issue, given that teachers of all three types of RE courses are educated at theology faculties. One might expect that, for a non-confessional RE, a part of the content knowledge should be about religious diversity, while for a confessional RE, the focus could be on a specific religion (or denomination) that is taught. This seems a challenge for theology faculties as they educate all RE teachers.

In Türkiye, theology faculties have always been regarded and imagined as Islam-centric institutions, partly because of the religious composition of the society. Well before the recent discussions regarding religious diversity (Kaymakcan 2007), the debates over theology faculties have centred on whether theology faculties in Türkiye are secular or religious institutions (Kara 2017). The fact that theology faculties are governed by a state institution, YÖK, responsible for higher education, and not by religious organisations or faith communities and the legislation and the mission and vision statements of theology faculties indicate that these institutions adopt a non-confessional approach to religion. However, some claim that actual teaching at theology faculties might align more with a confessional approach (Nazıroğlu 2018). Moreover, in recent years, more courses related to the Qur’an have been added to the programs of theology faculties, and some faculties’ mission statements include aims such as raising students who embrace Islamic values (Osmanoğlu 2021a).

The courses taught at theology faculties might be analysed regarding religious diversity. The theology faculties have three departments, and each department offers compulsory courses. A typical theology faculty program can be seen in

Table 1. A theology faculty program.1

Department	Courses	Percentage
Basic Islamic Sciences Department	Qur’an Recitation (8 terms) Arabic Language and Rhetoric (2 terms; there is also one year of preparatory Arabic education) Tafsir (Qur’anic Exegesis) (4 terms) Hadith (traditions/sayings of the Prophet Muhammad) (3 terms) Fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence) (3 terms) Kalam (Islamic Theology) (2 terms) Islamic Principles (2 terms) History of Islamic Sects (1 term) Tasawwuf (Islamic Mysticism) (1 term)	55%
Philosophy and Religious Sciences Department	Religious Education (1 term) Philosophy of Religion (1 term) Psychology of Religion (1 term) Sociology of Religion (1 term) History of Religions (1 term) History of Philosophy (1 term) Islamic Philosophy (1 term) Islamic Moral Philosophy (1 term) Logic (1 term) Rhetoric and Professional Practice (1 term)	16%
Islamic History and Arts Department	Islamic History (2 terms) History of Turkish Islamic Arts (1 term) Turkish-Islamic Literature (1 term) Religious Music (1 term)	12%
All three departments	Graduation Thesis (1 term)	17%
	Optional courses from all departments
University compulsory courses	Ataturk’s Principles and Revolution History (1 term) Turkish Language (1 term) Foreign Language (1 term) And other university compulsory courses (2 terms)

:

Table 1 shows departments, the compulsory courses they offer, and the percentage of these courses. As can be seen, the Basic Islamic Sciences Department courses, which mainly teach classical Islamic texts and sources, constitute more than half of the theology program (Turan 2017b). Qur’an Recitation and Arabic stand out as the most extensively taught courses in theology faculties. This is followed by Tafsir, Hadith, and Fiqh. In the past, the theology faculties were criticised for not devoting enough time to courses such as Tafsir and Hadith; therefore, the weight of Basic Islamic Sciences Department courses increased in theology faculties (Kaya 2021).

As the Presidency of Religious Affairs is one of the largest employers of the graduates of theology faculties, it seems that theology faculties feel obliged to raise graduates who are well-equipped to become religious functionaries. In other words, theology faculties function as religious seminaries since there has been no official or non-official religious seminary in Türkiye, and a theology degree has gradually become a requirement to occupy official religious functionary posts. An extensive Arabic and Qur’an teaching can be read against this backdrop (Hendek 2023).

As most courses in theology faculties focus on Islam, teacher candidates can be said to have enough content knowledge about Islam. Yet, for objective and inclusive RE teacher education, there must also be courses on religious diversity. When we analyse the courses regarding religious diversity, it seems that only two courses are overtly related to religious diversity: “History of Islamic Sects” and “History of Religions”. As their names suggest, these courses approach diversity from a historical perspective, meaning contemporary diversity might be missing. Moreover, other courses such as “Philosophy of Religion”, “Tasawwuf”, or Philosophy and Religious Sciences Department courses might also include topics related to religious diversity. Yet, religious diversity might not appear in the program apart from these courses. As university academics have some degree of autonomy over what they teach, religious diversity might still appear in some other courses, yet that will depend on the academic who teaches it, not on the course itself. Moreover, how these courses approach religious diversity is as important as how many courses are devoted to religious diversity in theology faculties. Some commentators claim that courses like History of Religions and Philosophy of Religions have evolved from apology to phenomenology or non-exclusivist approaches (Gündüz 2005; Yaran 2005), meaning that religious diversity is taught from a non-confessional perspective.

Given that RE teaching has different types, from non-confessional and to confessional and religious service vocations ranging from imam to Qur’an teacher for children and to religious counselling, the question remains how theology faculties can raise well-equipped graduates who can work in different vocations (Aydın 2016, p. 487; Ev 2017, p. 293).

As stated above, between 1997 and 2014, there was a Primary Religious Culture and Ethics Knowledge Teaching Program (IDKAB), and education faculties offered this program between 2006 and 2012. It is therefore important to analyse how this program educated its future teachers.

There were not different departments in this program (see

Table 2. Primary Religious Culture and Ethics Knowledge Teaching Program.2

Course Types	Courses	Percentage
Content Knowledge Courses	Arabic (4 terms, there is no one-year preparatory Arabic education) Qur’an Reading Knowledge and Skills (3 terms) Basic Religious Knowledge (2 terms) Main Themes in the Qur’an (1 term) The Life Prophet Muhammad (1 term) Hadiths and Teachings of the Prophet Muhammad (1 term) Kalam (1 term) History of Islamic Sects (1 term) Tafsir (1 term) Religious Education (1 term) Psychology of Religion (1 term) Sociology of Religion (1 term) Philosophy of Religion (1 term) Moral Philosophy (1 term) Islamic History (1 term) Art and Aesthetics in Islam (1 term) Turkish-Islamic Literature (1 term) Religious Music (1 term) Living World Religions (1 term) Intercultural Religious Education (1 term) Optional Courses (7 terms)	49%
General Culture Courses	Turkish (2 terms) Foreign Language (2 terms) Ataturk’s Principles and Revolution History (2 terms) Computer (2 terms) Introduction to Psychology (1 term) Introduction to Sociology (1 term) Introduction to Philosophy (1 term) Turkish Education History (1 term) Media and Communication (1 term) Community Service Practices (1 term) Moral and Values Education (1 term) Scientific Research Methods (1 term) Ottoman Turkish (1 term) Optional Courses (1 term)	26%
Pedagogical Knowledge Courses	Special Teaching Methods (2 terms) Introduction to Education Science (1 term) Educational Psychology (1 term) Instructional Principles and Methods (1 term) Instructional Technologies and Material Design (1 term) Measurement and Evaluation (1 term) Classroom Management (1 term) Special Education (1 term) Guidance (1 term) School Experience (1 term) Teaching Practice (1 term) Turkish Education System and School Management (1 term) Optional Courses (1 term)	24%

), but courses were grouped into three areas. We can compare these courses with those of theology faculties. Content knowledge courses constitute half of the program. The other half of the program comprises pedagogical knowledge and general culture courses. Pedagogical knowledge courses are now provided as optional courses in theology faculties, but most general culture courses are not provided in theology faculties at all. When we analyse the program regarding religious diversity, it appears that it includes History of Islamic Sects, like theology faculties. Moreover, instead of the History of Religions, the course Living World Religions is taught, probably indicating that world religions’ contemporary and living dimensions are covered, contrary to the History of Religions course in theology faculties. Apart from these two courses, there were also “Intercultural Religious Education” and “Moral and Values Education”, which include religious diversity.

It can be seen that the IDKAB program had more courses about religious diversity. Therefore, this program can be seen as an attempt to create an RE teacher education program from a social science perspective within a secular education system (Kaya 2021). However, the program was criticised for various reasons: some argued that the program was political and ideological, i.e., it was created to raise “secular” RE teachers. Others claimed that the program was transferred to education faculties without consulting theology faculties. Some maintained that the program did not have enough courses for content knowledge and did not have enough academics to teach it (Kaya 2021; Tekin 2011). It seems that all these criticisms led to the transfer of the IDKAB program to theology faculties in 2012 and their closure in 2014.

4.2. Pedagogical Knowledge

Like content knowledge, teachers must also have pedagogical knowledge, e.g., skills and knowledge related to teaching and learning processes, classroom management, and assessment. In Türkiye, teacher candidates must have pedagogical education, including RE teacher candidates. Currently, two models are applied in RE teacher education: consecutive and concurrent.

The graduates of İLİTAM programs, which do not have pedagogical education courses, and the graduates of theology faculties who opted out of teacher education during their undergraduate studies can attend the Pedagogical Formation Certificate Program (Pedagojik Formasyon Sertifika Programı) (the certificate program). The certificate programs are run as one-year courses by education faculties, and the Council of Higher Education determines their quotas. There are two terms, and each term has 14 weeks.

As can be seen in

Table 3. Pedagogical Formation Certificate Program (Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı 2022).3

Course	Theory	Practice
First Term
Introduction to Education	3	-
Instructional Principles and Methods	3	-
Classroom Management	2	-
Special Teaching Methods	3	-
Guidance and Special Education	3	-
TERM TOTAL	14	-
Second Term
Measurement and Evaluation in Education	3	-
Educational Psychology	3	-
Instructional Technologies	2	-
Teaching Practice	1	8
TERM TOTAL	9	8
TOTAL	23	8

, most of the courses focus on theoretical knowledge. For example, in “Instructional Principles and Methods”, major concepts about instruction and education, the curriculum and its dimensions, principles of instruction, taxonomy of education objectives and teaching strategies, methods, and techniques are taught theoretically. Teaching Practice only takes place in the second term, and students are expected to spend 8 h a week at school for 12 weeks. Interestingly, Teaching Practice was increased to two terms in 2021 (Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı 2021), but this was reversed in 2022 (Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı 2022) after merely one year.

Pedagogical education can also be obtained during theology education after the closure of the Primary Religious Culture and Ethics Knowledge Teaching Programs. Currently, students of theology faculties receive teacher education during their studies as optional courses. Students can opt out of teacher education, as it is not compulsory, but most students opt in. It should be noted that all theology faculties offer pedagogical education, but some faculties apply the latest certificate program (Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı 2022), i.e., they only offer Teaching Practice for one term, while others apply the previous program (Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı 2021), which had Teaching Practice for two terms, claiming that the current program is meant to be applied in certificate programs, not in theology faculties. As education faculties offer Teaching Practice for two terms for undergraduate students, these faculties claim theology faculties should also follow this precedent by offering Teaching Practice for two terms. In other words, regarding pedagogical education, all theology faculties offer the same program, but with one difference: Teaching Practice.

5. Discussion

In Türkiye, the debates over RE teacher education first and foremost centre around the question of whether Türkiye has a consistent teacher education policy, let alone a consistent RE teacher education policy (Arıcı 2018; Aydın 2016; Ev 2011; Tekin 2011; Zengin and Hendek 2019). Frequent changes, back-and-forth reforms, lack of RE teacher education philosophy, political wranglings, and the lack of cooperation between the Council of Higher Education, the Ministry of National Education, and theology faculties have led to inconsistent and often ill-fated teacher education policies (M. Zengin 2022). The rise and demise of the RE teacher education undergraduate degree (IDKAB) and the latest U-turn in Teaching Practice (see above) show that inconsistent teacher education policies continue today.

As can be seen, theology (and equivalent) faculties have been responsible for training teachers in the field of RE, apart from a short period between 2006 and 2012 when RE teachers were educated at education faculties. This shows that RE teacher education has been understood as a sub-field of “theology” rather than “education” in Türkiye. The period when RE teachers were educated at education faculties was often criticised as an effort to raise a more secular RE teacher profile, different from the RE teacher profile produced by the theology faculties (Kaya 2021). After intense pressure on the conservative government, RE teacher education was transferred back to theology faculties in 2012 and abolished in 2014.

In Türkiye, RE teacher candidates must study at theology (or Islamic studies) faculties to become RE teachers (apart from a short period as detailed above). In this sense, Türkiye differs from a host of other countries where RE teachers can study such other fields as religious studies, philosophy, sociology, or education and still become RE teachers (Koukounaras Liagkis 2023; Nixon et al. 2021; Schreiner 2018). This is partly because of a dire need for more RE teachers and the lack of enough theology graduates in other countries (Mead 2000). This does not seem to be the case in Türkiye, as there are more than enough theology faculties and graduates (Hendek et al. 2022). Currently, there are 105 theology/Islamic sciences faculties in Türkiye (Altın 2024), and in 2023, around 29,000 new students were enrolled in these faculties (Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı 2024).4 Moreover, some might argue that the graduates of philosophy or sociology may not have sufficient knowledge about religion. After a while, they might turn RE into something they are comfortable with (Copley 2008, pp. 205–6).

Theology faculties in Türkiye do not have any official denominational link or composition. Moreover, religious organisations or faith communities do not have any influence on the certification of RE teachers, contrary to some countries (Schreiner 2018; Tuna 2020). This might indicate that only the expertise of teacher candidates is relevant, not their affiliation or personal beliefs. This might be ideal for non-confessional RE but not too ideal for confessional RE. However, in practice, theology faculties are “accused” of raising (Sunni) Muslim RE teachers who approach plurality within Islam and other religions from a Sunni perspective (ECtHR 2007, 2014). This might be because of content knowledge provided in theology faculties or because children of conservative Muslim families generally prefer theology faculties.

The most important debate on theology faculties is whether theology faculties with single programs raise well-equipped graduates who can work in very different vocations, from RE teaching to religious services (Aydın 2016, p. 487; Ev 2017, p. 293). This issue becomes more pressing because RE teaching and religious services have different types and forms. As seen above, between 1997 and 2014, there was a separate RE teacher education program. This program was criticised for not providing its students with enough “content knowledge”, i.e., knowledge about religion, particularly Islam (Kaya 2021). Yet, the current program, i.e., the theology program, can be criticised for being generic and overloaded.

Firstly, the current program seems overloaded because it seeks to raise graduates who can work in different vocations. In Türkiye, students must complete 240 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits to gain a bachelor’s degree. As one ECTS credit corresponds to 25 or 30 work hours (European Commission 2015, p. 77), students should usually devote 900 h to theology program courses each term. As teacher education courses are voluntary, i.e., extra-curricular courses, students should complete further credits for teacher education. Even though there is no consistency in determining the ECTS credits of the courses, theology programs still include many courses, which limits the students’ opportunity for independent work and research (Aydın 2016, pp. 215–16).

Secondly, the current program seems generic, i.e., it does not provide specialisation. Since its inception, there have been debates about whether theology faculties should offer one or several programs in line with employment areas. One of the justifications for several programs/specialisations is that the field of religion is quite broad and that teaching it with a single program is impossible. Moreover, as in many fields, the emergence of new areas of expertise and employment and the diversity of target audiences may require theology faculties to offer several programs. There have been various program proposals to provide more specialisation based on employment areas. Most of the proposals have had three programs: “religious studies program”, “RE teacher education program”, and “religious services program” (Aşıkoğlu 2012; Aydın 2016; Çinemre 2021). Even though currently there is no such program structure, it seems that this issue will be one of the pressing debates surrounding theology faculties in Türkiye.

Regarding religious diversity and RE teacher education, it seems difficult to say that religious diversity is well-integrated into RE teacher education (Osmanoğlu 2021b). The current theology program only offers two courses related to religious diversity, and both approach religious diversity from a historical perspective. The Primary Religious Culture and Ethics Knowledge Teaching Programs (IDKAB) seemed better suited in terms of the integration of religious diversity, but even that program did not have enough courses related to religious diversity compared to RE teacher education programs offered in some other countries.5

Moreover, some studies show that RE teachers do not see themselves as competent in the teaching of other religions and interpretations within Islam (Kaymakcan 2009; Turan 2017a; Yemenici 2014; Zengin and Hendek 2021), which might indicate that other religions and beliefs, and even different interpretations within Islam, are not given enough space in theology programs (see also Çakmak 2021). In this sense, more space can be allocated to teaching other religions and interpretations within Islam in future RE teacher education programs. Undoubtedly, the issue here is not only the inclusion of courses related to other religions and beliefs in the programs but also how religious diversity is viewed and integrated into these courses, as some studies suggest that teachers generally take an apologetic approach when they teach other religions in the RCEK courses (Kaymakcan 2009; Uzunpolat and Ecer 2023; Zengin and Hendek 2021).

The inconsistency of the RE teacher education policy was discussed above. RE pedagogical education, too, was changed frequently. Yet, one issue remains consistent over the years: insufficient teaching practice. It was increased to two terms, but later, this was reversed, and today, most theology faculties offer one-term teaching practice. As some studies indicate that RE teacher candidates prefer longer teaching practice at schools (Çapcıoğlu and Kızılabdullah 2020; Ecer 2024), it is important to focus more on teaching practice in the future RE teacher education programs.

The students of İLİTAM can get teacher education through the certificate programs. These certificate programs are criticised for being inadequate in terms of time (as they take place mostly on weekends), not taking teacher education seriously, and seeing it as a way of making money (Aydın 2016, pp. 406–7). There are questions about the quality and validity of distance learning theology degrees (Aşıkoğlu 2012; Kaymakcan et al. 2014), given that there are already 105 theology faculties.

6. Conclusions

Theology faculties have been historically responsible for training teachers in the field of RE in Türkiye. Today, they continue to hold this position strongly. Yet, they have various problems in terms of teacher training. It may not be possible to understand the problems of teacher education in theology faculties independently of the general teacher education policies and the political conditions of Türkiye. It is seen that there have been frequent changes, back-and-forth reforms, and a lack of teacher education philosophy in Türkiye. Therefore, establishing a consistent RE teacher education policy remains a serious challenge.

Religious diversity has not been well-integrated into RE teacher education in Türkiye. Currently, theology faculties only offer two courses overtly related to religious diversity, and both approach religious diversity from a historical perspective. The Primary Religious Culture and Ethics Knowledge Teaching Programs seemed better, but they only had a handful of courses about religious diversity.

There seems to be a need to rethink theology faculties’ program structures to reform RE teacher education. Theology faculties may abandon the single program structure and implement several programs aligned with employment areas. In this way, religious diversity might be better integrated into compulsory RE teacher education programs. Yet, this process should be carried out with a scientific understanding, conducting stakeholder and needs analyses.

It should be noted that there is a need for further studies in RE teacher education. Studies which explore teacher candidates’ and academics’ expectations and views about the RE teacher education programs are needed to better understand RE teacher education in Türkiye.