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Article

Religion, Age, and Sexuality: An Empirical Approach to the Regulation of Female Sexuality through Dress among Indonesian Muslims

by
Jiwon Shin
Indian ASEAN Studies, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul 02450, Republic of Korea
Religions 2024, 15(8), 1017; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15081017
Submission received: 28 June 2024 / Revised: 18 August 2024 / Accepted: 19 August 2024 / Published: 21 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Health/Psychology/Social Sciences)
Browse Figure
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Abstract

:
This study investigated how religious factors exert social pressure to discipline female bodies through hijab practices in Indonesia. This study identified relationships among factors, such as religiosity, individuals’ involvement with religious communities, subjective norms regarding the hijab practice, and the regulation of sexuality. This study found that religious factors positively influence subjective norms which reinforce the regulation of sexuality. Although recent studies have underscored the role of the hijab as a tool for expressing Muslim identity and as a means for Muslim women to construct modernity, the results of this study reveal that the disciplinary function of the hijab still seems to have a greater impact. A group analysis reveals differences in the influence of religious factors on subjective norms. While religiosity has a larger impact among adolescents than their involvement with religious communities, this impact is insignificant in the age group of 20s and 30s. The varying effects of religious factors among different age groups imply that religious values rather than involvement with religious communities have a much greater impact on the construction of subjective norms among adolescents while the role of religion in socialization might be enhanced as individuals get older.

1. Introduction

Religion has played a pivotal role in maintaining the existing social order through doctrines and practices. In particular, the regulation of sexuality is one of the core tools for constructing gender norms to strengthen the existing social system. Conservative religious groups have particularly used dress as an obvious symbolic boundary marker and as a gender norm to reinforce the existing power systems (Arthur 1999). Islam, as well as other religions, has been regulating female bodies to maintain the patriarchal social order.
Indonesia, the nation with the largest Muslim population, is regarded as a relatively moderate Islamic country (Ni’am 2015). In Indonesia, where veiling was not mandatory for Muslim women, the number of Muslim women who adopt veiling as a means to resist the authoritarian government has increased (Brenner 1996; van Doorn-Harder 2006). When the authoritarian administration—the Suharto regime—forbade wearing veils in public institutions and non-religious public schools, many upper-middle-class women—mainly educated Javanese women activists—began wearing veils because female activists could be protected symbolically from the threats during the demonstrations (Brenner 1996; Smith-Hefner 2007; Wichelen 2007). Therefore, researchers on the hijab practice in Indonesia in the 1980s and 1990s have focused on the role of the hijab as a symbol of resistance.
While political backgrounds assume an important meaning in the spread of veiling, the rise of consumerism after the 1990s accelerated a new veiling trend. Several researchers have recently focused on the benefits (utilities) of the hijab which represents luxury and beauty as it was adopted as part of consumerism in Indonesia. Recent studies have argued that Islamic clothing is no longer viewed in terms of traditional utility (Nuroniyah 2019); it is rather used to construct Islamic modernity and identity (Maqsood 2014; Rinaldo 2008; Sadeghi 2008; Sandıkcı and Ger 2007) with the expansion of consumerism (Baulch and Pramiyanti 2018).
Even though the transformed function of the hijab in pursuing Islamic modernity has recently received greater attention in Indonesia, the spread of the hijab and its role in the Indonesian context seem to be closely related to the political background and its function in shaping modern identity in contemporary society. Recent studies provide evidence on the regulative role of the hijab. For instance, social or environmental pressures on wearing the veil existed during the spread of veiling in Indonesia (Smith-Hefner 2007) and social pressures on hijab-wearing exist in contemporary Indonesian society as Human Rights Watch (HRW) reports. Indonesian girls and women face social pressures, bullying, and harassment if they do not comply with mandatory Islamic dress codes implemented in schools, workplaces, and government offices (Yuniar 2021).
In particular, the forms of veiling are also socially regulated, as evidenced by the jilboob controversy. In 2014, a Facebook page called “Jilboob (Jilbab, indicating hijab in Indonesia and boobs) community” was created and the pictures of veiled women wearing tight jeans and tops that displayed body curves or skin were displayed. The page attained massive popularity but encountered criticism from Islamic scholars who thought that the attire displayed in images was not mandated by Islamic rules. In this context, the conservative religious institution Majelis Ulama Indonesia (MUI, the council of Indonesian Ulama) released a fatwa (Islamic legal ruling) on Jilboob to condemn it as part of pornographic acts because it includes the display of female bodies (Beta 2016). The Jilboob controversy shows that even in relatively moderate Islamic countries, such as Indonesia, attempts have been made to regulate female bodies through clothing (Baulch and Pramiyanti 2018; Zinira 2017).
The results of fieldwork which was conducted at a University in Yogyakarta from July to August 2018 as preliminary research also demonstrated that social pressures on the hijab practice exist in terms of sexual presentation. Respondents who participated in semi-structured interviews with open-ended questionnaires during the fieldwork emphasized the function of the hijab to cover the female body based on Islamic doctrine. The following responses reflect this emphasis.
“Islamic rules recommend women to wear the hijab to cover their aurat. By wearing hijab, women can maintain nature and chastity and protect themselves from insolent males’ gazes. By wearing the hijab, we can avoid inducing fantasies in men’s minds.
I think hijab can be fashionable, but we, as Muslim women, also need to be careful when we choose styles. We need to choose clothes that are loose, not tight, and thick when we wear the hijab. I also like to wear jeans, but they should not present body curves.”
Respondents stressed religious obligations (or duties) regarding the hijab practice and frequently utilized the term “genital (aurat)” which represents the regulatory mechanism of sexuality in Islam. Even though recent research tends to focus on the function of the hijab in the construction of modern Muslim identity, this study, inspired by the field work, focuses on its disciplinary role in regulating female sexuality among the diverse roles of hijab.
I found through our preliminary fieldwork that conservative attitudes toward the presentation of sexuality and the hijab are also evident in young students. This tendency is particularly prominent among students who have studied at educational institutions run by religious organizations, such as pesantren (Islamic boarding schools) or universities affiliated with religious organizations. In general, older groups tend to be more religious than younger generations. However, even though the influence of religion seems to be lower in adolescents, religion significantly influences the construction of their attitudes toward sex and sexual behaviors. Owing to social-control mechanisms (Hirschi 1969), young individuals who have strong connections to their beliefs and close relationships with Muslim parents, friends, and other religious community members are less likely to break their religious principles, as doing so could harm these significant bonds. Young people who are strongly bonded to their beliefs and Muslim parents, friends, and fellow religious adherents are less likely to violate the tenets of their faith because it could jeopardize their bonds (Adamczyk and Hayes 2012). Given that, this study also highlights various influences of religious factors across different age groups which are identified by previous research (Bengtson et al. 2015).
In this context, this study attempted to compare the influence of religion on the regulation of sexuality among diverse religious factors. Based on previous studies, it is difficult to ensure that religious factors have a greater influence on older generations. Also, the aspects that have different influences among various age groups should be specified. To investigate this, the present study conducted group analysis as a post-hoc analysis. Given that, this study empirically examined the following research questions.
(1)
Do religious factors positively influence regulating the expression of sexuality through hijab practice in Indonesia?
(2)
How is the expression of sexuality regulated?
(3)
Are there any differences in the influence of religious factors among different age groups (between adolescents and adults)?
To investigate these research questions, this study attempted to identify relationships among factors such as religiosity, individual’s involvement with religious communities, subjective norms (SNs) relevant to the imposition of social order, and the regulation of sexuality in terms of hijab practices by applying a quantitative research method of structural equation modeling (SEM). Additionally, through group analysis, this research investigated the influences of different religious factors in shaping subjective norms regarding the presentation of sexuality.

2. Religion, Subjective Norms, and Sexual Behavior in Islamic Contexts

Foucault (1995) argued that systems constantly keep individuals under surveillance and regulate them for normalization and acceptance. Foucault specifically focused on the body as a site of control, or more aptly as the “object and target of power.” Discipline is one of the dominant workings of power, and docile bodies result from discipline for surveillance and regulation for normalization. Discipline refers to a type of power comprising a set of instruments, techniques, procedures, application levels, and targets (Foucault 1977). The notion of docility means the institutional regulation of individual bodies. Religion is one of the most powerful institutions that influence the construction of social order and disciplinary bodies in various ways.
Many studies have found a positive relationship between religiosity and sexual conservatism regarding female sexuality. In general, religiosity is negatively correlated with sexually-permissive behaviors (Li and Cohen 2014). Since all major religions impose certain restrictions on sex, extensive research has focused on examining how religions affect sexual behaviors (Meier 2003; Rostosky et al. 2004). Various international attitudinal studies have shown that Muslims and Hindus often exhibit more conservative views on sex-related matters than Christians (Finke and Adamczyk 2008). Among Muslims, religion has delimited individuals’ engagement in religious activities and their informal socialization with other Muslims, and religious norms against premarital sex reduce young individuals’ inclination (Adamczyk and Hayes 2012).
Douglas postulates that the human body signifies both ideology and social control as a “natural symbol” for the social body (Arthur 1997). Clothing, a powerful means of communication as a modified and supplemented body (Roach-Higgins and Eicher 1992), has been utilized as a symbol of religious compliance. Numerous religious communities have established cultural norms on the attire, and community members wear specific attires to present their religiosity, adjust to society, and comply with religious norms (Arthur n.d.). For instance, according to previous studies, the Holdeman Mennonite community regulated women’s bodies by imposing a strict religious value system through clothing (Arthur 1997) and Amish dress practices were applied to constrain individual bodies by embracing faith (Hostetler 1964; Kraybill et al. 2013).
Like other religious traditions, Islamic traditions focus on the body by devising various forms of control over it; they regulate body movements during prayer through the wearing of the hijab, fasting, and purification of the body (Ragozina 2020). Islamic traditions particularly regard women’s bodies as exuding sexuality and consider that their movements, and the styles, shapes, and colors of their clothes can arouse male sexual desire (Tseelon 1995). Thus, Islamic teachings stress that Muslim women can avoid sexual desire by pursuing modesty through wearing the hijab (Siraj 2011). Therefore, though Muslims accept diverse interpretations of the use of hijab, its main function is to facilitate the avoidance of the male gaze and the protection of a woman’s modesty, which is a primary duty indicated in the Qur’an, both in her faith and community. Thus, the hijab represents a means by which a woman can successfully execute the function as demanded by Allah through Prophet Muhammad (McDermott 2010) as underlined in the following Quran verse:
And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what must ordinarily appear thereof; that they should draw their veils over their bosoms and not display their beauty except to their husbands, their fathers, their husbands’ fathers, their sons, their husbands’ sons, their brothers, or their brothers’ sons or their sisters’ sons, or their women or the servants whom their right hands possess, or male servants free of physical needs, or small children who have no sense of the shame of sex, and that they should not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments. And O you Believers, turn you all together towards Allah, that you may attain Bliss.
(Qur’an 24:31, as cited in Ali 1983).
As the Qur’an elucidates, the hijab has traditionally functioned as a tool for the practice of modesty and assists in fulfilling women’s duties toward their families and men. Expressions, such as “not display their beauty” and “no sense of the shame of sex,” imply the control of female sexuality and the quest to make Muslim females modest. Thus, religious discipline in Islam constantly regulates women’s sexuality through clothing practices to construct docile bodies.
In this context, this study focused on the factors of religiosity and individuals’ involvement with religious communities. Religiosity, defined as the degree to which individuals hold their specific religious beliefs and values, may affect the construction of their values and opinions, such as those on what is right and wrong (Mazereeuw-van der Duijn Schouten et al. 2014). Involvement with religious communities enables individuals to strengthen social bonds, and collectivistic cultures encourage people to comply with societal norms (Ho et al. 2008). Religious doctrines rationalize strict norms regarding attire and argue that the way of dressing represents religious compliance. Since breaking away from religious norms is regarded as a threat to the sect, it must be controlled. If a woman intends not to comply with norms regarding dress, she is more likely to encounter formal and informal means of social control (Graybill and Arthur 1999).
In the Indonesian context, religious organizations such as Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), Muhammadiyah, and others are deeply involved in the construction of social norms, attitudes, and socialization through religious activities and education (Azra 2002). For instance, religious educational institutions attempt to enhance individuals’ religiosity by publishing advisory textbooks for Muslim women, incorporating these religious texts into their educational curriculum, and suggesting guidelines regarding religious practices (Brown 2019; van Doorn-Harder 2006). That is, religious factors, such as religiosity and involvement with religious communities, influence the construction of social norms in Indonesia.
With respect to this, the following hypotheses were developed:
Hypothesis 1.
Religiosity positively affects the formation of Subjective Norms(SNs).
Hypothesis 2.
Individuals’ involvement with religious communities positively affects the formation of their SNs.
SNs are the perceived social pressure on individuals to perform, or refrain from, certain actions (Ajzen 1991). Lord and Todd DeZoort (2001) concluded that social pressures can lead individuals to refrain from acting unfaithfully toward the authorities or the norms of communities. As discussed above, Muslims adopt the concept of modesty based on the Islamic doctrine.
Numerous studies have investigated the relationship between SNs and individuals’ decisions on dressing (Arifah et al. 2018; Clarke et al. 2009; Kim et al. 2003), including the positive impact of SNs on their choice to wear the hijab. In particular, traditional religious institutions promote sexual ideologies that are intended to assert social influence and control over sexual behaviors by prescribing and proscribing (rewarding and punishing) the who, what, when, where, and how (cultural scenarios and behavioral standards) of sexual activities (Rostosky et al. 2003). Based on this, this study assumes that SNs exerted by religion on individuals lead to their compliance with Islamic teachings on the practice of modesty.
Regarding this, the following hypothesis was developed:
Hypothesis 3.
SNs positively affect the regulation of sexuality.
The conceptual model is depicted in Figure 1.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Field Work as Preliminary Research

In the initial step, fieldwork was conducted for data collection in Yogyakarta from July to August 2018. Semi-structured interviews and an exploratory survey on the themes of religious factors and hijab practice were conducted with seventy-four participants. Based on the results, a conceptual model was constructed. These semi-structured interviews and the exploratory survey aimed to investigate the meaning of the hijab, the diverse aspects of hijab practice, and the main factors influencing hijab practice, especially among Indonesian Muslim youth. The participants were informed that the results would be used only for academic purposes. Finally, informed consent was obtained from all participants.

3.2. Instrument Development

This study used a multiple-item scale to measure the constructs and a seven-point Likert scale to measure all items in the survey. To ensure reliability and validity, the present study adapted existing scales which have high reliability and validity (i.e., composite reliability, Cronbach’s alpha, AVE, etc.). Given that this study focuses on the relationship between religion, subjective norms, and the regulation of sexuality, the hijab factors were included when I adapted the items in the scales. Religious factors are defined as religiosity and individuals’ involvement in religious communities. Referring to the scales developed by Huber and Huber (2012) and Kartajaya et al. (2019), I adapted three religiosity items. Additionally, I adapted four items from the scales used by Huber and Huber (2012), Bouteraa and Al-Aidaros (2020), and Kartajaya et al. (2019) regarding their involvement with religious communities. To measure SNs, this study adapted two items from the scales developed by Wahab et al. (2016), Briliana and Mursito (2017), and Santor et al. (2000). Regulation of sexuality was measured through two items adapted from scales developed by Kartajaya et al. (2019) and Japutra et al. (2019). Regarding the regulation of sexuality, the present study attempted to include the presentation on social media concerning its influence.

3.3. Sampling and Data Collection

A survey was conducted in 2021 to obtain quantitative research data. I chose purposive non-probability sampling to avoid the collection of samples irrelevant to this study and obtain samples influenced by religious organizations and social media influencers—Indonesian Muslims who were influenced by traditional or trendy values. The sample selected for this study were individuals who followed the official social media accounts of religious institutions and influencers. Since this study aimed to examine the influence of religious factors, it selected samples from individuals involved in religious communities. To enhance the representativeness of the sample, I aimed to include members from NU and Muhammadiyah, the largest religious groups in Indonesia, as well as members from their affiliated organizations. Additionally, to ensure that the sample did not consist solely of religious individuals, the present study also included individuals who are interested in hijab influencers or the members of Hijabers Community1 who are regarded as representing modern Islamic identities (Baulch and Pramiyanti 2018). A native Indonesian translator rendered the survey questions, which were initially written in English, into Indonesian. The participants were informed that their anonymity would be guaranteed and that the survey results would be used only for academic purposes. Finally, informed consent was obtained from all participants.
Data were collected using Google Online Surveys conducted between 5 April and 24 May 2021. Direct messages were distributed to Instagram and Facebook users selected from the lists of followers mentioned above. In the first survey period (5–25 April), 1056 direct messages requesting participation were distributed to 76 respondents. In the second survey period (3–24 May), 1242 direct messages requesting participation were distributed to 75 respondents. A total of 151 valid and complete questionnaires were collected, yielding a response rate of 6.6%. The demographic information is presented in Table 1.

3.4. Data Analysis

Using PLS path modeling (partial least squares path modeling), the author examined the research model. PLS path modeling, which was invented to analyze multi-dimensional data in a less-structured environment, is efficient when models are complicated and the sample size is small (Hair et al. 2017; Sarstedt et al. 2016). Because the research model of this study is explorative and the sample size is relatively small, PLS path modeling was employed for data analysis.

4. Results

4.1. Reliability and Validity

Internal reliability was examined using composite reliability (CR) (Table 2). The CR values for all constructs were higher than 0.7, which was a satisfactory level (Bagozzi and Yi 1988). Convergent validity was assessed by measuring the AVE (Fornell and Larcker 1981). All constructs revealed AVE values greater than the 0.5 threshold.
Discriminant validity was also examined. The values of the square root of AVE for each construct were higher than the highest correlation between that construct and others (Fornell and Larcker 1981). These results demonstrated the validity and reliability of the proposed model.

4.2. Hypothesis Testing

The predictive power and effect size of the constructs are listed in Table 3. The predictive power was analyzed with R2; the higher the R2 values, the higher the accuracy levels of prediction (Hair et al. 2016). The R2 values of SNs and regulation of sexuality were 0.402 and 0.114, respectively, and were larger than 0.1, which is an acceptable level (Falk and Miller 1981). Regarding the effect size, f2 values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 are guidelines for small, medium, and large effect sizes, respectively (Cohen 1988). I found that religiosity and SNs exerted medium-sized effects (f2 = 0.151 and f2 = 0.128, respectively), while involvement with religious communities exerted a small effect (f2 = 0.093).
To test hypotheses, I used a bootstrapping technique in Smart PLS 4.0 with 5000 samples at a significance level of 0.05, which is used to examine the significance of the path coefficient. Table 4 presents the results of hypothesis testing.
The path coefficient of religiosity to SNs was 0.391, which was significant (p < 0.001). Therefore, H1 was accepted. The path coefficient of involvement with religious communities to SNs was also significant (coefficient = 0.307, p < 0.001); therefore, H2 was supported. The path coefficient of SNs to sexual regulation was 0.337 (p < 0.001) and significant. Thus, H3 is supported.

4.3. Post-Hoc Analysis: Group Analysis

As a post-hoc analysis, this study conducted a group analysis. By dividing groups based on their age, this study investigated the different influences of religiosity, involvement with religious communities, and SNs among individuals in the age group of teenagers, 20s and 30s (or over).
According to the hypothesis testing in the teenagers’ group, the path coefficient of religiosity to SNs was 0.701, which was significant (p < 0.001). Therefore, H1 was accepted. Conversely, the path from involvement with religious communities to SNs was insignificant (coefficient = 0.002); therefore, H2 was not supported. The path coefficient of SNs to sexual regulation was 0.379 (p < 0.05) and significant. Thus, H3 was supported (see Table 5).
Regarding the effect size, I found that religiosity exerted a very large effect (f2 = 0.503), while involvement with religious communities exerted no effect (f2 = 0.000). However, SNs exerted a medium-size effect (f2 = 0.168) (see Table 6).
The results of hypothesis testing in the group of participants in their 20s were slightly different. While the path from religiosity to SNs was insignificant (coefficient = 0.259), the path from involvement with religious communities to SNs was significant (coefficient = 0.426, p < 0.001). Also, the path from SNs to regulation of sexuality was significant (coefficient = 0.373, p < 0.001) (see Table 7).
In the group of 20s’, both involvement with religious communities and SNs have a medium effect, whereas religiosity has a very small effect (see Table 8).
The result of hypothesis testing on a group of individuals over 30 reveals that while religiosity did not have a valid influence on SNs (coefficient = 0.224), involvement with religious communities had a positive influence on SNs (coefficient = 0.507, p < 0.05). The path from SNs to the regulation of sexuality was also valid (coefficient = 0.436, p < 0.05) (see Table 9).
Regarding the effect sizes, the results presented a similar tendency to the results of the group of individuals in their 20s’. In a group of over 30s’, both involvement with religious communities and SNs have a medium effect, whereas religiosity has a very small effect (see Table 10).

5. Concluding Remarks

5.1. Discussions and Implications

This study examined different governing mechanisms across various age groups and found that Indonesian Muslim women are socially pressured by religious factors to wear hijabs to show modesty. The quantitative results verified the relationship between constructs in the research model and examined how factors such as individuals’ religiosity and their involvement with religious communities regulate the presentation of sexuality through hijab practices.
The group analysis which was conducted as a post-hoc analysis reveals that the influences of religiosity and involvement with religious communities on SNs regarding hijab practice differ based on age groups. While only religiosity significantly impacts SNs with respect to hijab practices in the adolescent group, the influence of the involvement of individuals in the 20s and over 30s groups with religious communities was significant. Conversely, SNs regarding hijab practice were significant in all age groups.
The findings of the study have several implications. First, although recent studies have underscored the role of the hijab as a tool for expressing Muslim identity and as a means for Muslim women to construct modernity (Maqsood 2014; Rinaldo 2008; Sadeghi 2008; Sandıkcı and Ger 2007), the results of this study reveal that the traditional meaning of the hijab still seems to exert greater influence on Indonesian Muslim women. Although Indonesia is regarded as a relatively moderate Islamic country and fashionable and modern hijab styles are prevalent, the regulation of sexuality through the hijab still prevails. Thus, the results of this study suggest that traditional approaches concerning the regulatory function of dress in religion are still meaningful.
Second, this study identified the influences of different religious factors across various age groups. While religious influences in regulatory contexts were generally discussed in comprehensive terms, this study examined detailed factors, such as religiosity and involvement with religious communities. Conforming to previous studies (Adamczyk and Hayes 2012; Hirschi 1969), the results of this study reveal that the younger generation tends to be more strongly bonded to their religious beliefs in terms of sexual behaviors. The significant effect of the involvement of individuals in the 20s and over 30s groups with religious communities implies that religious factors might have a stronger impact on adults as a socialization function. As discussed, in Indonesia, the role of religious organizations extends beyond religious activities to socialization (Brown 2019; van Doorn-Harder 2006). Therefore, involvement with religious communities can significantly influence the construction of social norms among adults. Conversely, religious values rather than involvement with religious communities have a much greater impact on the construction of subjective norms among adolescents.
In sum, although recent studies have underscored the role of the hijab as a tool for individuals to express their Muslim identity and as a means for Muslim women to construct modernity (Maqsood 2014; Rinaldo 2008; Sadeghi 2008; Sandıkcı and Ger 2007), the results of the present study reveal that the traditional meaning of the hijab still seems to exert greater influence on Indonesian Muslims. Although Indonesia is regarded as a relatively moderate Islamic country, the regulation of sexuality through the hijab still prevails. The study also highlights the significance of the Foucauldian approach for investigating the aspect of disciplining female bodies in Islamic societies. This study explored and identified the mechanisms of the sexual discipline of women and examined the significance of SNs in disciplining women’s bodies. Additionally, the varying effects of religiosity and involvement with religious communities among individuals in different age groups imply that as they get older, the role of religion in socialization might be enhanced, influencing the construction of SNs.

5.2. Limitation and Future Studies

This study attempted to explain the extent to which religious factors affect the construction of SNs and the regulation of sexuality. Nevertheless, because this experimental study is not based on the existing research model, there are some limitations.
First, though this study attempted to overcome the limitations of a small sample size by incorporating diverse groups and applying PLS-path modeling, it is still hard to generalize the conclusion with this sample size. Nevertheless, this study attempts to include individuals who are involved in representative religious organizations and communities related to this research topic—traditional and representative Indonesian religious organizations and individuals or groups leading Indonesian modern hijab trends. However, further study needs to be conducted with larger samples.
For more in-depth research regarding this topic, I recommend that the target sample be further defined in the future. Since this study aims to examine the influence of religious factors, the target sample included individuals who were involved in religious organizations or religious communities and who promoted friendship and shared information. However, follow-up studies should target specific research groups and establish a sample group. Further, a comparative analysis on different religious communities is recommended because each religious group has slightly different doctrines. In addition to this, this study mostly focuses on differences between adolescent and adult groups. However, as the results identified differences across various age groups, future studies could apply a comparative approach that includes older generations.
Also, although the hometown of the participants in the preliminary research and survey are varied, this research is mostly based on the Javanese area in Indonesia. For instance, the targeted religious organizations and religious communities were mostly based on Java, and the fieldwork for preliminary research was conducted in Java Island. Therefore, the results of this study mostly reflect the Javanese socio-cultural backgrounds. In future studies, this research model can be applied in other regions to focus on the different aspects of different regions, or whole regions with larger samples could be incorporated and comparative approaches can be adopted.
Finally, as discussed above, educational backgrounds, such as whether the participants have experiences in Islamic boarding schools or not, can influence the notion and norms regarding hijab practice. Also, governmental policies can be an influential factor behind the hijab practice. Therefore, diverse political and socio-cultural factors function in constructing social norms and choices of hijab practice. Although factors, such as religiosity, individuals’ involvement with religious communities, and age, are mainly considered to examine the construction of subjective norms and regulation of sexuality, in future studies, a qualitative research method can be applied to elaborate on the findings of this study and investigate the complexities in hijab practice.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Ethical review and approval were waived for this study, due to institutional legality and key informant approval.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data used during this study are available from the author, under request by e-mail.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflicts of interest.

Note

1
Hijabers Community was founded by Muslim designers in Jakarta in 2020. The community has 12 branches in Indonesia and pursues a globalized community by presenting themselves as fashionable Muslims mostly using social media accounts. The Hijabers Community incorporates religious events such as Qur’an recitation and discussion; however, they mostly focus on sharing fashion issues regarding hijab (Baulch and Pramiyanti 2018; Beta 2014).

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Religions 15 01017 g001
Figure 1. The conceptual model used in this study.
Figure 1. The conceptual model used in this study.
Religions 15 01017 g001
Table 1. Demographic information.
Table 1. Demographic information.
VariableCount%
Age
14–194630.47%
20–298052.98%
30–39159.93%
>40106.62%
Educational level
Some high school, no diploma106.62%
High school graduate7147.02%
Bachelor’s degree5234.44%
Master’s degree138.61%
Doctorate degree53.31%
Engagement with religious organizations
Engaged9663.58%
Not engaged5536.42%
Total151100%
Table 2. Construct measures.
Table 2. Construct measures.
Construct MeasuresMeanSDSOL
Religiosity(CR = 0.849, AVE = 0.655)
(Strongly disagree = 1, Strongly agree = 7)
  Religious values are very important in my daily activities.6.6620.8370.713
  It is important for me to take part in religious services.6.8540.3890.715
  It is important for me to follow Islamic rules when I wear (choose) hijab.6.5230.8830.909
Involvement with religious community (CR = 0.929, AVE = 0.766)
  It is important for me to be connected to a religious community.6.2251.0750.858
  Religious communities make me aware of the right way of wearing hijab.6.2721.1330.937
  Religious communities encourage me to wear the hijab in a modest way.6.3311.0900.933
  It is important for me to follow the rules of a religious community when I wear (choose) hijab.5.6491.5150.761
Subjective norms (SNs)
(CR = 0.910, AVE = 0.836)
  Most people who are important to me choose to wear the hijab following the Islamic rule.6.2381.0470.910
  I would feel guilty if I wore the hijab in such a way as not to follow the Islamic rule.6.3770.9750.918
Regulation of sexuality
(CR = 0.736, AVE = 0.584)
  I tend to not upload on social media accounts my photos/videos when I wear the hijab with clothes that reveal my body curve. 6.3381.1390.806
  When I choose hijab fashion style, I consider that if I wear the product it does not reveal my body curve.6.3511.1800.842
Table 3. Predictive power and effect size of the latent variables.
Table 3. Predictive power and effect size of the latent variables.
ConstructsR2f2Effect Size Rating
Religiosity-0.151Medium effect
Involvement with religious communities-0.093Small effect
Subjective norms (SNs)0.4020.128Medium effect
Regulation of sexuality0.114--
Table 4. Hypothesis testing.
Table 4. Hypothesis testing.
PathsStandardized Coefficientt-StatisticHypothesis
Accepted?
H1. Religiosity -> Subjective norms0.391 ***3.562Yes
H2. Involvement with religious communities -> Subjective norms0.307 ***3.535Yes
H3. Subjective norms -> Regulation of sexuality0.337 ***3.973Yes
Note. *** p < 0.001.
Table 5. Hypothesis testing (adolescent).
Table 5. Hypothesis testing (adolescent).
PathsStandardized Coefficientt-StatisticHypothesis
Accepted?
H1. Religiosity -> Subjective norms0.701 ***5.641Yes
H2. Involvement with religious communities -> Subjective norms0.0020.017No
H3. Subjective norms -> Regulation of sexuality0.379 *2.274Yes
Note.* p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001.
Table 6. Predictive power and effect size of the latent variables (adolescent).
Table 6. Predictive power and effect size of the latent variables (adolescent).
ConstructsR2f2Effect Size Rating
Religiosity-0.503Very large effect
Involvement with religious communities-0.000no effect
Subjective norms (SNs)0.4930.168Medium effect
Regulation of sexuality0.144--
Table 7. Hypothesis testing (20s).
Table 7. Hypothesis testing (20s).
PathsStandardized Coefficientt-StatisticHypothesis
Accepted?
H1. Religiosity -> Subjective norms0.2591.659No
H2. Involvement with religious communities -> Subjective norms0.426 ***3.506Yes
H3. Subjective norms -> Regulation of sexuality0.373 ***3.512Yes
Note. *** p < 0.001.
Table 8. Predictive power and effect size of the latent variables (20s).
Table 8. Predictive power and effect size of the latent variables (20s).
ConstructsR2f2Effect Size Rating
Religiosity-0.088Very small effect
Involvement with religious communities-0.184Medium effect
Subjective norms (SNs)0.4310.161Medium effect
Regulation of sexuality0.139--
Table 9. Hypothesis testing (30s).
Table 9. Hypothesis testing (30s).
PathsStandardized Coefficientt-StatisticHypothesis
Accepted?
H1. Religiosity -> Subjective norms0.2240.891No
H2. Involvement with religious communities -> Subjective norms0.507 *2.237Yes
H3. Subjective norms -> Regulation of sexuality0.436 *2.017Yes
Note. * p < 0.05.
Table 10. Predictive power and effect size of the latent variables (30s).
Table 10. Predictive power and effect size of the latent variables (30s).
ConstructsR2f2Effect Size Rating
Religiosity-0.051Very small effect
Involvement with religious communities-0.260Medium effect
Subjective norms (SNs)0.4610.234Medium effect
Regulation of sexuality0.190--
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Shin, J. Religion, Age, and Sexuality: An Empirical Approach to the Regulation of Female Sexuality through Dress among Indonesian Muslims. Religions 2024, 15, 1017. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15081017

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Shin J. Religion, Age, and Sexuality: An Empirical Approach to the Regulation of Female Sexuality through Dress among Indonesian Muslims. Religions. 2024; 15(8):1017. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15081017

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Shin, Jiwon. 2024. "Religion, Age, and Sexuality: An Empirical Approach to the Regulation of Female Sexuality through Dress among Indonesian Muslims" Religions 15, no. 8: 1017. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15081017

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