Buddhism’s Knotted Thread (結縷法): Indian Origins and Chinese Adaptations

Abstract

The Buddhist “Knotted Thread” originates from the ancient Indian practice of venerating sacred threads. In Indian culture, sacred threads symbolize identity and status and possess functions such as exorcism, healing, disaster prevention, blessing, protection, and divination. Initially, Buddhism opposed the use of sacred threads by its followers. However, as Buddhism evolved, it began to adopt this and other practices. Buddhist threads could be monochromatic or multicolored, with five-colored threads (五色縷) having significant cultural connections to China. In Buddhism, the five colors typically consist of four primary colors (四本色; blue, yellow, red, and white) plus an additional color. The difference between the Buddhist and traditional Chinese five colors lies in the selection of the fifth color. The five-colored threads in Buddhism have various combinations, such as blue, yellow, red, white, and black; blue, yellow, red, white, and purple; and blue, yellow, red, white and green. With Buddhism’s spread into China, to align with traditional Chinese notions of five colors, the Buddhist five-colored threads gradually standardized to blue, yellow, red, white, and black. The evolution of the Buddhist five-colored threads reflects the cultural exchange between India and China.

1. Introduction

The spread of Buddhism from India to China not only introduced a new spiritual tradition but also catalyzed significant exchanges in material culture between India and China. Berthold Laufer, in his seminal work Sino-Iranica, notes Buddhism’s role in this cultural exchange, suggesting that Buddhists may have introduced spinach to China, for example (Laufer 1919). Edward Hetzel Schafer, in his influential study, examines how foreign material culture profoundly impacted the Tang dynasty, influencing flora, fauna, culinary practices, spices, medicinal knowledge, textiles, dyes, and secular and religious artifacts, among other cultural facets, with Buddhism serving as a crucial catalyst for some of these interactions (Schafer 1963). Recent research has made substantial strides in studying Buddhism’s role in facilitating the exchange of material culture between India and China. Jeffrey Kotyk, for instance, underscores Buddhism’s instrumental role in introducing Indian astronomical texts to China (Kotyk 2017). A notable recent contribution to this field is John Kieschnick’s The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture, which meticulously investigates Buddhism’s influence on various aspects of Chinese material culture, including relics, icons, books, bridges, chairs, sugar, tea, etc., supported by robust historical evidence (John 2003). Within this theoretical framework of Buddhism’s contributions to Chinese material culture, this study specifically examines the case of knotted threads. It explores how Buddhism effectively integrated indigenous Indian thread knot traditions into Chinese practices, illustrating the dynamic cultural exchanges facilitated by Buddhism.

The knotted thread is an ancient form of witchcraft that was prevalent in many early civilizations. As Cyrus L. Day observes, “Attempts to control and direct the power that resides in knots, and to make it work to the disadvantage of an enemy or to the advantage of oneself, must have been made at a very early date. Long before the dawn of civilization, certainly, the tying of magic knots had become a part of the vast system of magic which primitive man developed in his efforts to gain control over the forces of nature. When, in the course of time, knots began to lose their practical importance as a result of the invention of new kinds of fastenings, they also lost some of their importance in magic. They never lost it entirely, however, for magic knots are still being tied in Africa, Asia, the Pacific islands, and also, presumably, in Europe and America”. (Day 1950, p. 232). Additionally, William Crookes elucidates the importance of threads and knotting in both European and Indian folklore, noting, “Connected with this is the belief in the forming a connection by knotting the magic string. We have the European true love-knot, an emblem of fidelity between the pair betrothed. So, in Italy interlaced serpents and all kinds of interweaving, braiding, and interlacing cords are valuable as protectives because they attract the eyes of witches. Thus, among the Karans of Bengal, the essential part of the marriage ceremony is believed to be the laying of the bride’s right hand in that of the bridegroom and binding their two hands together with a piece of string spun in a special way. This belief in the mystic power of knots is common in all folk-lore. The clothes of the bride and bridegroom in Upper India are knotted together as they revolve round the sacred fire. A similar belief explains the wearing of the Janêû or sacred thread by high-caste Hindus. The knots on it, known as Brahma-granthi, or “the knots of the Creator”, repel evil influences, and Muhammadans on their birthdays tie knots in a cord, which is known as the Sâlgirah or “year knot” (Crooke 1896, pp. 45–46).

Buddhist scriptures also document numerous instances of using the mystical method called “knotted threads” (結縷法) to alleviate the suffering of beings. Fóshuō chíjù shénzhòu jīng 《佛說持句神呪經》 states, “The Buddha told Ananda: This mantra should be recited while traveling. If you encounter county officials, robbers, witches, poisons, blades, or humans and non-humans, recite it. It can make a withered tree bear leaves, flowers, and fruits. Thus, it can benefit people by tying threads, ensuring auspiciousness, eliminating diseases, bringing safety, and averting harm (佛告阿難：是持句呪，行道中當念之。若至縣官、若行賊中、若蠱道、若毒、若刀刃中、若人非人中當念之，是持句呪於枯樹令生葉華實，何況為人結縷也，當使吉，百病消除，自然安隱，辟除凶害; Taisho Tripitaka T. 21, No. 1351, p. 865)”. The scripture emphasizes that by using the method of knotting threads, one can eliminate various diseases and unfavorable circumstances. Yàoshī liúlí guāng rúlái běn yuàn gōngdé jīng 《藥師琉璃光如來本願功德經》 states, “World-Honored One! We are now blessed by the Buddha’s power to hear the name of Medicine Master Lapis Lazuli Light Tathagata and are no longer afraid of evil destinies. … Those who circulate this sutra, uphold the name of Medicine Master Lapis Lazuli Light Tathagata, and offer reverence will be protected by us, freeing them from all suffering. Their wishes will be fulfilled. If someone in distress seeks relief, they should recite this sutra, using threads of five colors to tie our names, and once their wish is granted, untie the knots (世尊！我等今者，蒙佛威力，得聞世尊藥師琉璃光如來名號，不復更有惡趣之怖……若有流布此經，或復受持藥師琉璃光如來名號，恭敬供養者，我等眷屬衛護是人，皆使解脫一切苦難。諸有願求，悉令滿足。或有疾厄求度脫者，亦應讀誦此經，以五色縷，結我名字，得如願已，然後解結; Taisho Tripitaka T. 14, No. 450, p. 408)”. According to this Buddhist scripture, when people encounter illness or disaster, they can receive the protection of the Yakshas and stay away from disease and calamity by reciting this scripture and using the knotting method.

The Buddhist knotted thread provides spiritual solace to those seeking relief from suffering. To Buddhist believers, wearing a sacred thread can achieve purposes such as exorcism, healing, disaster prevention, blessing, and protection. Venerable Yinshun, in his Yàoshī jīng jiǎngjì 《藥師經講記》, explained that the “naming” (結名) in the Medicine Master Sutra refers to chanting the names of Yaksha generals and tying a knot with five-colored silk threads for each name, resulting in twelve knots (稱念一位藥叉大將的名字，就用五色絲線打一個結，如次念十二名字，打十二個結; Yin 2010, p. 122). Similarly, in other esoteric texts, each chant is accompanied by the tying of a knot in the thread.

It is notable that while Fóshuō chíjù shénzhòu jīng mentions knotted threads, it does not specify the colors, whereas sutras like Yàoshī liúlí guāng rúlái běn yuàn gōngdé jīng explicitly refer to five-colored threads. Reviewing Buddhist scriptures, it is evident that five-colored threads are the most common in the Buddhist knotted thread. Chinese native culture also has customs of wearing five-colored silk threads. For instance, Fengsu Tong 《風俗通》 mentions, “On the fifth day of the fifth month, five-colored silk threads are tied around the arm, called the long-life thread, also known as the life-continuing thread, the soldier-warding thread, the five-colored thread, or the vermillion cord. It wards off soldiers (warding off war or weapon injuries) and ghosts and ensures that the wearer does not suffer from fever (五月五日，以五彩絲系臂，名長命縷，一名續命縷，一名辟兵繒，一名五色縷，一名朱索，辟兵及鬼，命人不病溫; Ying and Wang 1981, p. 605)”. According to records in Fengsu Tong, as early as the Han Dynasty, or even earlier, it was customary in China to wear five-colored threads on the fifth day of the fifth month to ward off evil spirits, diseases, and other harmful influences. This also demonstrates a protective and defensive function similar to that of the five-colored threads in India. Zhōngguó Mínjiān Xìnyǎng Fēngsú Cídiǎn 《中國民間信仰風俗辭典》 provides another explanation for the origin of five-colored silk threads: “The “Hundred Cords” (百索) is an ancient talisman made of five-colored silk, traditionally believed to ward off evil and bring blessings. Originally, it was hung on doors, but later it was used to tie around the arm”. Volume 8 of Song Dynasty Gao Cheng’s Records of Affairs states, “The Extended Han Book mentions: At the summer solstice, when the negative energy begins to emerge, fearing that things would not flourish, vermillion cords were tied with peach wood charms and placed on doors. Therefore, on the fifth day of the fifth month during the Han dynasty, vermillion cords and five-colored prints were used to decorate doors to ward off evil energy. Nowadays, the “Hundred Cords” is a remnant of the vermillion cord tradition. It began in the Han dynasty as a door ornament, but now people mistakenly use it as an arm ornament. Additionally, colorful silk threads were tied into knots to form “Hundred Cord Knots”, and those made into strands were called “Five Silks”. (Wang and Xu 1992, p. 514).

In Chinese culture, “five colors” have long been fixed as blue, red, yellow, white, and black. As stated in the Lǎozǐ Héshàng Gōng Zhù 老子河上公注, written during the Han Dynasty, “The five colors are blue, yellow, red, white, and black (五色有青黃赤白黑; Wang 1993, p. 140)”. These colors are also linked with concepts such as the five elements (五行) and five directions (五方), endowed with special meanings1. Indian culture does not have a fixed concept of five colors2. Some scholars believe that the five-colored threads in Buddhist scriptures were influenced by Chinese culture3. If the five-colored threads were indeed influenced by Chinese culture, it raises the question of whether the Buddhist knotted thread also has roots in Chinese native culture. This study aims to trace the origins and development of the Buddhist knotted thread through an examination of the related Buddhist texts.

2. The Veneration of Sacred Threads in Indian Culture and Its Influence on Buddhism

The veneration of sacred threads has a long history in India. In ancient Indian customs, twice-born castes would receive a sacred thread at a certain age, symbolizing their status. This ceremony is known as Upanayana4. In Buddhist scriptures, wearing the sacred thread is recorded as a symbol of Brahmin identity. Dàbān Nièpán Jīng 《大般涅槃經》 states, “When looking at a distant person, seeing someone in dyed robes, one might think, “This is a shramana, not a Brahmin”. But upon seeing a knotted cord worn across the body, one would then think, “This is a Brahmin, not a shramana”. This is called being attached to worldly distinctions (如望遠人，有染衣者，生想執著，言是沙門非婆羅門；見有結繩橫佩身上，便生念言，是婆羅門非沙門也，是名執著世; Taisho Tripitaka T. 12, No. 374, p. 443)”. In ancient India, wearing dyed robes was a distinguishing feature of shramanas, while wearing knotted threads was characteristic of Brahmins. Although Dàbān Nièpán Jīng opposes Buddhist adherents’ attachment to external appearances, this record objectively confirms that wearing knotted threads symbolized Brahmin identity and status.

In addition to distinguishing identity, sacred threads in Indian culture also possess magical properties. In India, to protect newborns from various external forces, black threads are often tied around the baby’s waist, especially for boys. These threads are believed to give the boys strength, both sexual and physical (Beverley 1993). Chapter 29 of the Indian medical text Compendium of Charaka (Chikitsa Sthana), titled “Treatments for Children”, discusses methods for driving away evil spirits that possess children. It mentions the use of a sacred thread: “To pacify the evil spirits, one must recite mantras endowed with various powers, offer sacrifices and burn these offerings that bring peace. Additionally, a sacred thread that has been enchanted with mantras should be tied around the child’s body” (Chen 2021, p. 141). Moreover, in Kenneth G. Zysk’s book “Religious Medicine: The History and Evolution of Indian Medicine”, there are also several recorded cases of the use of sacred threads in disease treatment, such as “While reciting AVŚ 7.116 (121) the healer does as in the case of birds, i.e., he binds with a red thread and a blue thread a frog, stripped like reeds, by the feet (or armpits) [to the bed on which the patient is made to lie down and sprinkles him with water]” (Zysk 1993, p. 38).

In ancient India, threads were also used in black magic for cursing enemies or controlling others. For instance, Gēnběn Shuō Yīqiē Yǒubù Pínàiyē 《根本說一切有部毘奈耶》 mentions using five-colored threads for casting spells to kill someone（若苾芻欲殺人，起方便以五色線刺僧伽胝，口誦禁呪作如是念：作此衣了，令彼命終。若衣未了彼命終者，得窣吐羅底也；衣了死者，得波羅市迦; Taisho Tripitaka T. 23, No. 1442, p. 662). Additionally, in black magic, thread is often used for metamorphosis. In the Jaina folktale “Uttama-charitta Kathā”, the witch Anangasena, frustrated by her unrequited love for Prince Uttamacharitra, angrily tied a thread to his foot, transforming him into a parrot5.

In Indian culture, sacred threads are occasionally used for divination. In Gāo Sēng Zhuàn 高僧傳, by the Liang dynasty monk Huijiao (慧皎), there is an account of a renowned monk named Kumārajīva who came to China from India. Kumārajīva once predicted the recovery of an illness for a high-ranking official named Zhang Zi (張資) by burning threads. According to the record, “Using five-colored silk threads, he tied them into a knot, burned them to ashes, and cast the ashes into water. If the ashes floated and reformed into the original thread, the illness would be incurable. Shortly after, the ashes gathered and floated, reforming into the original thread shape. Subsequently, the treatment proved ineffective, and Zhang Zi passed away a few days later (乃以五色絲作繩結之，燒為灰末，投水中，灰若出水還成繩者，病不可愈。須臾，灰聚浮出，復繩本形。既而又治無效，少日資亡; Taisho Tripitaka T. 50, No. 2059, pp. 331–32)”. The Biographies of Eminent Monks does not explicitly state that this method of divination originated in India. However, John Campbell Oman, during his early 20th-century fieldwork in India, recorded a real divination story that happened to him: “On another occasion I allowed a Brahman fortune-teller to practice his art at my expense… he made me procure a piece of thread, break it myself into five bits… At length he handed me the pellet of thread, requesting me to place it in my mouth… At this stage the fortune-teller requested me to remove the pellet of thread from my mouth, saying that if the pieces had joined together, then every possible doubt in regard to the fulfillment of my wishes would be removed”. This real-life example of divination also involved breaking threads into pieces and then observing whether they could restore to their original form after a specific ritual to predict the future. The ancient divination story of Kumārajīva and the early-20th-century divination story in India are remarkably similar, suggesting that this method of predicting the future through threads has a long-standing tradition in India (Oman 1975, pp. 322–23).

Buddhism initially opposed the caste system and the various superstitious practices in Indian society. Sacred threads, being symbols of identity and possessing magical functions, were naturally rejected by Buddhism. Sìfēn Lǜ 《四分律》 states that monks should not wear various ornaments or sacred threads:

At one time, six groups of monks were wearing ear ornaments, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. … The six groups of monks were enlarging their ear holes with rings made of palm leaves or lead and tin, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They wrapped their ears, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They made belts of lead and tin, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They wore necklaces, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They wore arm and leg bracelets, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They wore finger rings, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They used five-colored threads to tie around their armpits and waists, and the Buddha said, “This should not be done”.

時六群比丘著耳鐺，佛言：“不應爾”。……六群比丘以多羅葉、若鉛錫作環張耳孔令大，佛言：“不應爾”。彼六群比丘纏裹耳，佛言：“不應爾”。彼作鉛錫腰帶，佛言：“不應爾”。彼著頸瓔，佛言：“不應爾”。彼著臂脚玔，佛言：“不應爾”。彼著指環，佛言：“不應爾”。 彼用五色綖絡腋繫腰臂，佛言：“不應爾”。

(Taisho Tripitaka T. 22, No. 1428, p. 946)

Sìfēn Lǜ mentions that monks should not “wear five-colored threads around their armpits and waists”, but it does not provide a detailed explanation for this prohibition. Gēnběn Shuō Yīqiē Yǒubù Pínàiyē Záshì 《根本說一切有部毘奈耶雜事》 also prohibits monks from wearing five-colored threads and explains the reason for this prohibition:

The six groups of monks, while begging for food, saw Brahmins adorned with fragrant flowers and wearing five-colored threads on their arms. They received various food items and, after eating, their appearance was radiant when they left the house. The six groups of monks said to each other, “Nanda, Upananda! This is a good method, we should do the same”. So, they wore five-colored threads on their arms the next day and entered the city to beg for food. The Brahmins saw them and scornfully said, “I bow down now”. The six groups mocked, elaborating as before. Eventually, the monks reported this to the Buddha, who thought, “If monks wear five-colored threads on their arms, there will be such faults. Therefore, monks should not wear five-colored threads on their arms. If they do, they commit a pārājika offense”.

六眾乞食見諸婆羅門，以妙香花莊嚴形體，將五色線繫之於臂，得諸餅食既飽食已，形貌充溢從舍而出。六眾相謂：“難陀、鄔波難陀！是好方便，我等可為”。便於他日以五色線繫於臂上，入城乞食。諸婆羅門等見，生輕賤云：“我今跪拜”。六眾譏弄，廣說同前，乃至諸苾芻白佛。佛作是念：“若諸苾芻以五色線繫臂有斯過失，由是苾芻不應以五色線繫臂。若有繫者得越法罪”。

(Taisho Tripitaka T. 24, No. 1451, p. 208)

In Gēnběn Shuō Yīqiē Yǒubù Pínàiyē Záshì, the following is mentioned: “The six groups of monks mocked, elaborating as before (六眾譏弄廣說同前)”. Referring to a previous passage, it states: “Non-believers saw them and laughed, saying: “I am bowing now”. The six monks responded: “You ignorant people do not understand the proper etiquette; who should bow? Who should be saluted”? The non-believers replied: “We only know that when we see a Brāhmaṇa, we bow, and when we see a Bhikṣu, we salute”. “If that is the case, when you see me as a Bhikṣu, why do you not salute instead of bowing”? (不信之人見而笑曰：我今跪拜。六眾報曰：汝等愚人不閑禮式，誰合跪拜？誰當敬禮？彼人答曰：我等但知見老婆羅門即云跪拜，若見苾芻便云敬禮。若如是者，見我苾芻，何不敬禮而云跪拜; Taisho Tripitaka T. 24, No. 1451, p. 207)”. From this, it can be inferred that in ancient India, bowing was reserved for Brāhmaṇas, while saluting was for Śramaṇas. Wearing five-colored threads was a symbol of the status and identity of Brāhmaṇas. The six groups of Bhikṣus, pretending to be Brāhmaṇas by tying five-colored threads around their arms, entered the city to beg for food and were ridiculed. Therefore, the Buddha established a precept prohibiting Bhikṣus from wearing five-colored threads to avoid being mistaken for Brāhmaṇas and attracting ridicule.

The prohibition against monks wearing threads is also found in Shísòng Lǜ 《十誦律》. However, the account in this text differs slightly from those in Sìfēn Lǜ and Gēnběn Shuō Yīqiē Yǒubù Pínàiyē Záshì.

The six groups of monks wore threads around their wrists, and the laypeople criticized them, saying, “These monks claim to be virtuous and good, yet they wear multicolored threads on their wrists like kings or ministers”. This matter was reported to the Buddha, who said, “From now on, monks are not permitted to wear multicolored threads on their wrists. Those who do so commit a minor offense (dukkaṭa)”. The six groups of monks also wore threads under their armpits, and the laypeople criticized them, saying, “These monks claim to be virtuous and good, yet they wear threads under their armpits like Brāhmaṇas”. This matter was reported to the Buddha, who said, “From now on, monks are not permitted to wear threads under their armpits. Those who do so commit a minor offense (dukkaṭa)”.

六群比丘腕上繫縷，諸居士呵責言：“諸比丘自言善好有德。以雜色縷繫腕上，如王、如大臣”。是事白佛，佛言：“從今不聽以雜色縷繫腕上。繫者，突吉羅”。六群比丘縷絡腋，諸居士呵責言：“諸比丘自言善好有德。以縷絡腋如婆羅門”。是事白佛，佛言：“從今不聽比丘以縷絡腋。絡腋者，突吉羅”。

(Taisho Tripitaka T. 23, No. 1435, p. 267)

Shísòng Lǜ mentions two methods of wearing threads. The first method involves tying threads around the wrist, characteristic of the Kshatriya caste, including kings and ministers. The second method involves wearing threads under the armpit, characteristic of the Brahmins. The Buddha considered that monks wearing threads could be mistaken for Brahmins or Kshatriyas, leading to ridicule and criticism. Furthermore, unlike the Sìfēn Lǜ and Gēnběn Shuō Yīqiē Yǒubù Pínàiyē Záshì, which refer to “five-colored threads”, the Shísòng Lǜ mentions “multicolored threads”. The differences and similarities between five-colored threads and multicolored threads will be discussed later in the text.

After the Buddha’s parinirvana, Buddhism underwent schisms, leading to the formation of various sects, each with its own distinctive Vinaya texts. The Sìfēn Lǜ, Shísòng Lǜ and Gēnběn Shuō Yīqiē Yǒubù Pínàiyē Záshì are, respectively, upheld by the Dharmaguptaka, Sarvāstivāda and Mūlasarvāstivāda sects. While the content regarding monks wearing threads is not entirely identical across these three Vinaya texts, their stance against monks wearing threads is consistently negative. The prohibition against monks wearing threads appears to have a common origin, likely stemming from the earliest teachings of the Buddha. This suggests that during the Buddha’s time, wearing threads was indeed a prevalent practice in Indian society.

As the Buddhist community expanded, and Buddhism underwent schisms, it faced unprecedented challenges. These necessitated changes to its doctrines and precepts, incorporating new content that could attract and satisfy the practical needs of its followers6. Among these adaptations was the incorporation of the Indian custom of wearing sacred threads into Buddhist practices. Gēnběn Shuō Yīqiē Yǒubù Pínàiyē Záshi, translated by Yijing during the Tang dynasty, although primarily a Vinaya text adhered to by the Mūlasarvāstivāda sect, most likely incorporates elements from subsequent sectarian developments within Buddhism. This text meticulously documents this progression:

Since the Buddha did not permit the wearing of threads on the arm, there was a time when a monk, suffering from an illness, went to a physician and asked, “Sir, I am ill. Please prescribe a remedy for me”. The physician replied, “Venerable one, take a five-colored thread, recite a spell over it, and tie it around your arm. This will surely cure you”. The monk responded, “The Blessed One does not allow this”. The physician said, “Your master is compassionate by nature. There should be no doubt that he would permit this for the sake of illness”. The monks reported this to the Buddha, who said, “I now allow monks to wear threads for the sake of illness, if instructed by a physician, without committing an offense”. When monks tied the thread around the front of their right elbow7, they were ridiculed, so the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They then tied it behind their right elbow, but the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. They tied it in front of their left elbow, and again the Buddha said, “This should not be done”. Finally, they tied it behind their left elbow, and the Buddha approved. The monks were cured, and they discarded the thread wherever they pleased. Non-human beings saw this and were offended, saying, “Venerable one, you tied this thread and recited a spell using our names to cure your illness, and now you treat it with contempt”. The monks reported this to the Buddha, who said, “You should not discard the thread just anywhere. If your illness is not yet cured, you may tie it to the corner of your robe. Once you are completely healed, you may place it in a crack in the wall or in a pillar as you see fit”.

佛既不許繫臂線者，時有苾芻身嬰患苦，詣醫人處問言：“賢首！我身有疾幸為處方”。答言：“聖者！取五色線呪之繫臂，必得除愈”。報曰：“世尊不聽”。彼言：“仁之大師慈悲為本，病緣開許理所不疑”。時諸苾芻白佛，佛言：“我今聽諸苾芻為病因緣醫人教者，繫線無犯”。佛許以線繫臂，苾芻安在右臂肘前，還有譏過，佛言：“不應爾”。遂安肘後，佛言：“不應”。復繫左手肘前，佛言：“不應，當安左手肘後”。苾芻由此遂便病愈，以所繫線隨處棄擲。非人見之皆起嫌賤，報言：“聖者！由其線結繫我名字，緣此呪故令得病除，今生輕慢”。苾芻白佛，佛言：“不應隨處棄擲，若其身病未得可者，繫之衣角。如善平復，可於牆柱隙中隨意安置”。

(Taisho Tripitaka T. 24, No. 1451, p. 209)

The practice of tying a five-colored thread around the arm was originally forbidden by the Buddha. However, for healing purposes, the Buddha allowed disciples to wear five-colored silk behind their left elbows8. As the Buddha permitted monks to tie threads, Buddhist texts began to promote this custom, eventually developing into the distinctly Buddhist practice known as the knotted thread9. Chinese Buddhist catalogues still preserve titles such as Zú Féng Zéi Jié Dài Zhòu 《卒逢賊結帶呪》 and Shí’èr Yīnyuán Jié Lǚ Shén Zhòu 《十二因緣結縷神呪》, which seem to be texts specifically promoting the Buddhist knotted thread. However, these texts have been lost over time, and their specific contents are difficult to ascertain. Fortunately, esoteric Buddhist texts still retain abundant material related to the knotted thread, allowing us to explore this Buddhist practice in detail.

3. The Number and Colors of Threads in the Buddhist “Knotted Thread”

According to Buddhist scriptures, the knotted thread may involve using single threads of one color. Examples from various texts include the following:

According to Volume Two of Qiānyǎn Qiānbì Guānshìyīn Púsà Tuóluóní Shén Zhòu Jīng 《千眼千臂觀世音菩薩陀羅尼神呪經》, “If a virtuous man or woman is afflicted by demons, they should use a white thread as a charm cord, tying one knot for each recitation of the spell, making forty-nine knots in total. Tying it around their throat will immediately cure their illness （若有善男子善女人為鬼魅所著，以白縷為呪索，一遍一結，如是四十九結，繫其咽下，其病即除; Taisho Tripitaka T. 20, No. 1057a, p. 89）”.

According to Volume One of Qī Fó Bā Púsà Suǒ Shuō Dà Tuóluóní Shén Zhòu Jīng 《七佛八菩薩所說大陀羅尼神呪經》, “Recite the spell three times, using a yellow thread to make fourteen knots, one knot per recitation, and tie it around the neck. The power of this dharani can subdue all obstacles, move mountains, stop rivers, dry up great seas, and crush mountains into dust (誦呪三遍，黃色縷結作十四結，一遍一結繫項。此陀羅尼力悉能摧伏，移山斷流、乾竭大海，摧碎諸山猶如微塵; Taisho Tripitaka T. 21, No. 1332, p. 536)”.

Guānzìzài Púsà Suíxīn Zhòu Jīng 《觀自在菩薩隨心呪經》 mentions, “Take a blue thread, recite the spell once for each knot, making seven knots. Tie it below the navel, around the waist, to cure hemorrhoids and dysentery, and around the neck to cure all illnesses. If someone is poisoned, recite the spell over the thread, and they will recover (又法取青綖，呪一遍一結，如是七結，繫臍下繞腰衬身，除痔病、下痢病，繫項除一切病，人得毒藥呪之亦差; Taisho Tripitaka T. 20, No. 1103a, p. 462)”.

Volume Four of Dà Jíyì Shén Zhòu Jīng 《大吉義神呪經》 advises the following: “Recite this great knotting spell sutra, using a red thread to make a hundred knots, and offer it with incense to the deities. The deities will gather in one place to preach the Dharma (當誦讀是大結呪界經，以赤線繫作百結，以香供養諸天，諸天等當集在一處為其說法; Taisho Tripitaka T. 21, No. 1335, p. 580)”.

The Xīfāng Tuóluóní Zàng Zhōng Jīngāng Zú Āmìlǐduō Jūnzhālì Fǎ 《西方陀羅尼藏中金剛族阿蜜哩多軍吒利法》 suggests the following: “To expel all harmful spirits, use a black thread, recite the spell for each knot, making twenty-one knots in total. Burn fragrant incense and pass the thread through the smoke, then tie it around the head. Recite the spell into the ear of the sick person. If this doesn’t work, use a vajra pestle to strike the ground, and the spirit will be crushed, curing the person (欲除一切荼枳儞鬼等，黑綖一呪一結滿二十一遍，取安悉香燒薰綖，將繫頭上，向病人耳中誦呪。如不可者，取金剛杵向地杵，其鬼即惱碎，其人病即差; Taisho Tripitaka T. 21, No. 1212, p. 57)”.

These scriptures, respectively, use single threads of white, yellow, blue, red, and black for the knotted thread. In ancient India, colors were associated with specific functions. Olga V. Galustyan and Elena V. Papchenko mentioned that “Three Gunas (quality), the combination of which directed the movement and development of the universe, performed its transformation into a world of objects and beings, open perception. The names of the modes indicate their nature: Tamas (darkness) represents the inertia; Raja (passion)—energy and activity; Sattva (essence)—the clarity, balance, and peace. This certainly affects color symbolism: Tama is always associated with the black color, the color of denial. Raja is associated with the red color, the oldest in the history of the humanity; a person is associated with blood, fire, and love; Sattva is associated with white, expressing relief from any resistance, representing the exact opposite of black. The Indian tradition of expressing the color corresponding to the emotional state gives white color values space disposition, the properties of goodness, as it is characterized by a caste of priests (Brahmins), which remained the unchanged traditions of the society for millennia” (Galustyan and Papchenko 2015, p. 38). In other words, in India, red symbolizes passion, desire, and intense emotions; black symbolizes evil, impurity, and inauspiciousness; white symbolizes holiness, auspiciousness, and peace.

In Buddhist scriptures, there are more detailed records concerning the various functions of different colors. For instance, in the first volume of Yīqiè Rúlái Dà Mìmì Wáng Wèicéng Yǒu Zuì Shàng Wēimiào Dà Mànnáluó Jīng 《一切如來大祕密王未曾有最上微妙大曼拏羅經》, translated by Song dynasty Tianxi Zai (天息災), the following is stated: “Mandala uses the color of the vase: for the practice of pacification, use a white vase; for the practice of increase, use a yellow vase; for the practice of attraction, use a red vase; for the practice of subjugation, use a very black vase (曼拏羅用其瓶色：若為息災法用白色瓶；若增益法用黃色瓶；若敬愛法用赤色瓶；若降伏法用極黑色瓶; Taisho Tripitaka T. 18, No. 889, p. 544)”. Similarly, in the third volume of Fó Shuō Dàbēi Kōngzhì Jīngāng Dà Jiàowáng Yíguǐ Jīng 《佛說大悲空智金剛大教王儀軌經》, translated by Song dynasty Fahu (法護), the following is stated: “I now explain the method for achieving protective magic: for pacification, use a round furnace, white in color, with a diameter of one and a half cubits and a depth of half a cubit; for increase, use a square furnace, yellow in color, with a diameter of two cubits and a depth of one cubit; for subjugation, use a triangular furnace, black in color, with a width of ten fingers and a depth of five fingers; for attraction, use a red furnace (我今復說成就護魔法：息災，圓爐，白色，廣一肘半，深等半；增益，四方，黃色，廣二肘，深一肘；降伏，三角，黑色，廣十指，深五指；信愛，紅色;Taisho Tripitaka T. 18, No. 892, p. 595)”. These examples demonstrate that in ancient India, white was associated with pacification, yellow with increase, red with attraction, and black with subjugation, which is similar to depictions in the non-Buddhist literature from the same period. Correspondingly, in the Buddhist knotted thread, white threads could be used for curing illnesses, red threads for invoking deities to preach the Dharma, and black threads for expelling harmful spirits, aligning with the functions of pacification, attraction, and subjugation, respectively. Thus, the knotted thread described in Buddhist esoteric texts bears strong Indian influences.

The Buddhist knotted thread can also involve multi-colored threads. As described in Qī Fó Bā Púsà Suǒ Shuō Dà Tuóluóní Shén Zhòu Jīng,

“Recite the spell three times, using threads of two colors, yellow and white, to make three knots and tie them around the neck (誦呪三遍，縷黃白二色結作三結，繫項)”.

“Recite the spell three times, using threads of three colors, yellow, red, and green, to make twenty-one knots. First, tie them around the feet, then the waist, and finally the hands (誦呪三遍，三色縷黃赤綠，作二十一結，先繫脚、後繫腰、却繫手)”.

“Recite the spell five times, using threads of six colors to make five knots and tie them around the painful area (誦呪五遍，六色縷結作五結，痛處繫)”.

“Recite the spell three times. Use threads of eight colors to make four knots, and tie them around both feet (誦呪三遍，縷八色結作四結，繫兩脚)”.

(Taisho Tripitaka T. 21, No. 1332, pp. 546, 557, 539, 541)

Similarly, in the Dà Jíyì Shén Zhòu Jīng, the following is stated:

“If one wishes to see all ghosts, spirits, yakshas, deities, and rakshasas, anoint the eyes with oil, burn incense to worship the Four Great Heavenly Kings, and recite this boundary spell daily using four-colored threads to make four knots and tie them on the top of the head to achieve this vision (若欲見一切鬼神夜叉提婆利沙，油塗已眼，燒香供養四大天王，日日誦念此結界經，以四色線結作四結，繫著頂上，得如意見)”.

“If one desires to win in battle, burn incense and recite the spell seven times, using seven-colored threads to make seven knots and tie them at the top of the banner. Should any weapons approach, they will naturally fall away without causing harm (若欲鬪戰求勝敵者，應七遍燒香，以七色綖結為七結，七遍誦呪，當應以此結繫幢頭。設有刀箭欲來向身，自然墮落終不傷害)”.

“Using ten-colored threads, pass them through the smoke of various burning incenses seven times, recite the sutra, and tie the threads to make seven knots (以十色線七過，燒種種香七遍，誦經繫線作七結)”.

(Taisho Tripitaka T. 21, No. 1335, pp. 580, 579, 580)

These examples above illustrate the use of two-colored, three-colored, six-colored, eight-colored, four-colored, seven-colored, and ten-colored threads, respectively. According to an analysis of the esoteric Buddhist text Qī Fó Bā Púsà Suǒ Shuō Dà Tuóluóní Shén Zhòu Jīng, the sutra specifies tying single-colored threads ten times, two-colored threads ten times, three-colored threads seven times, six-colored threads two times, seven-colored threads three times, and eight-colored threads once. Notably, five-colored threads are mentioned the most frequently, with 11 occurrences. However, the sutra sometimes omits the specific colors of the threads. Based on the identified instances, the sutra mentions yellow threads fifteen times, white threads ten times, blue threads eight times, red threads five times, green threads five times, black threads three times, purple threads three times, and scarlet threads once. Thus, yellow is the most frequently mentioned color, followed by white (Taisho Tripitaka T. 21, No. 1332).

In Buddhism, the concept of five-colored threads (五色縷) is noteworthy, particularly in its potential relationship with the traditional Chinese concept of five-colored threads. To understand this relationship, it is essential to first explore the notion of “five colors” (五色) in Buddhism. In Buddhist texts, the term “five colors” is not fixed, whereas the term “four colors” (四色) appears as a specific and consistent concept. Fó Shuō Jīnyào Tóngzǐ Jīng 《佛說金耀童子經》 mentions the following: “At that time, when the World Honored One spoke these words, blue, yellow, red, and white rays of light emanated from his mouth (爾時世尊說此語時，青、黃、赤、白四色光明從口而出; Taisho Tripitaka T. 14, No. 546, p. 851)”. In Volume Two of Dǐngshēng Wáng Yīnyuán Jīng 《頂生王因緣經》, the following is stated: “In that palace, there were dishes of four kinds of su-dha food, namely blue, yellow, red, and white. Whenever the celestial men and women thought of eating, the food would appear in their hands (又彼宮中有四色蘇陀味食，謂青、黃、赤、白，若彼天男及天女等思其食者，纔起心時而自至手; Taisho Tripitaka T. 3, No. 165, p. 396)”. These references illustrate that the “four colors” in Buddhism generally refer to blue, yellow, red and white. But why are these four colors grouped together? According to Buddhist texts, blue, yellow, red, and white are considered fundamental colors, with all other colors resulting from combinations of these four. For instance, in Volume Forty of Ābídámó Dà Pípóshā Lùn 《阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論》, it is mentioned that “Blue, yellow, red, and white are the basis of all colors (青黃赤白是眾色本; Taisho Tripitaka T. 27, No. 1545, p. 207)”. In Volume One of Ābídámó Jùshě Lùn 《阿毘達磨俱舍論》, it is stated that “There are two aspects of color: one is manifest and the other is form. There are four manifest colors: blue, yellow, red and white. Other manifest colors are variations of these four (言色二者，一顯、二形。顯色有四：青、黄、赤、白，余显是此四色差别; Taisho Tripitaka T. 29, No. 1558, p. 2)”. Given the unique status of blue, yellow, red and white as fundamental colors, it is natural to refer to them collectively as the “four colors”.10

It should be noted that in modern color theory, red, green, and blue are considered the primary colors. However, Buddhism regards four colors—blue, yellow, red, and white—as fundamental. This may be related to the caste system in India, where society is divided into four castes, each associated with a specific color. For example, the Brahmanda Purana mentions, “Meru is remembered as the most beautiful. It has four colours (like four castes—Varṇas).…It has different colours at its sides. It is originated from the umbilical cord of Brahmā born of the unmanifest one. In the east, it is white in colour. Hence, it is on a par with the Brāhmaṇas. Its northern side has a natural red colour. Hence, the Kṣatriya-hood of Meru on account of various reasons and purposes. In the southern side it is yellow. So its Vaiśyatva (state of being a Vaiśya) is evident. In the west it is like the Bhṛṅgapatra (a kind of leaf black in colour) all around. Hence, it has the state of Śūdra. Thus the colours are recounted (as well as the castes). Its nature through colour and magnitude has been explained (Tagare 1958, p. 143)”. BrihatSamhita delineates the distinct colors of pimples corresponding to each caste in India: “The pimples of the people of the four classes, beginning with Brahmins, are white, red, yellow, and dark, respectively (Varahamihira 1947, p. 418)”. In this system, white represents the Brahmins, red represents the Kshatriyas, yellow represents the Vaishyas, and black (dark) represents the Shudras. Influenced by the concept of caste and color correspondence, Buddhism also identifies four basic colors. However, unlike the Brahmanical concept, Buddhism replaces black (dark) with blue, which can be considered close to black (dark) when darkened.

In Buddhism, the concept of “five colors” often involves different combinations but generally consists of the four primary colors plus one additional mixed color. According to Rénwáng Bōrě Jīng Shū 《仁王般若經疏》, Volume Two, “The text mentions five colors, referring to the five roots as five colors, and also mentions blue, yellow, red, white, and a mixed color as the five colors (文云五色者，云五根為五色，亦云青黃赤白雜色為五色; Taisho Tripitaka T. 33, No. 1707, p. 338)”. This combination of the four primary colors (blue, yellow, red, white) plus one additional mixed color appears in various Buddhist scriptures.

In Volume Fourteen of Zhōng Āhán Jīng 《中阿含經》, “Ananda, at that time, the great king produced a jewel. This jewel was naturally clear and pure, not man-made, with eight facets and free of impurities, excellently polished, and strung with a five-colored thread: blue, yellow, red, white, and black (阿難！時，大天王而生珠寶，彼珠寶者，明淨自然，無有造者，八楞無垢，極好磨治，貫以五色繩，青、黃、赤、白、黑; Taisho Tripitaka T. 1, No. 26, p. 512)”.

In Volume One of Móhē Móyē Jīng 《摩訶摩耶經》, “At that time, upon hearing these words, the World Honored One emitted a five-colored light—blue, yellow, red, white, and ruby red—which illuminated the entire Jambudvipa (爾時，世尊聞此語已，而便放於五色光明——青、黃、赤、白、頗梨紅色——其光遍照閻浮提內; Taisho Tripitaka T. 12, No. 383, p. 1008)”.

In Fó Shuō Xūmótí Púsà Jīng 《佛說須摩提菩薩經》, “The Buddha immediately smiled, and five colors—blue, red, yellow, white, and green—emanated from his mouth, emitting great light that illuminated countless Buddha lands in all directions (佛尋欣笑，五色——青、赤、黃、白、綠——光從口而出，甚大光明，普照十方無數佛國; Taisho Tripitaka T. 12, No. 335, p. 81)”.

The five colors mentioned in the three scriptures are blue, yellow, red, white, and black; blue, yellow, red, white, and ruby red; and blue, yellow, red, white, and green. Each forms a combination of “four primary colors plus one additional color”.

It should be noted that the Buddhist concept of “five colors” most commonly takes the form of “four colors plus one”. The fifth color, a mixed color, exists based on the four primary colors. Therefore, in Buddhist scriptures, the fifth color is sometimes represented by the four primary colors alone, without explicitly listing it. For example, in Volume Eight of the Guāngzàn Jīng 《光讚經》, it says, “Just like the void, there are no five colors: blue, yellow, red and white (譬如虛空，無有五色青黃赤白; Taisho Tripitaka T. 8, No. 222, p. 202)”. Similarly, in Volume One of Fó Shuō Dà Bān Níhuán Jīng 《佛說大般泥洹經》, it states, “Outside the city, there are seven treasure ponds surrounded by eight virtues of water, clear and pure, neither cold nor hot, with a gentle flow. Each pond contains four types of seven-treasure lotus flowers, as large as cart wheels, glowing with five colors: blue, yellow, red, white. People enjoy themselves, sailing in seven-treasure boats among them (城外有七寶池周匝圍繞，八功德水湛然充滿，不冷不熱微流清淨，皆生四種七寶蓮華大如車輪，青黃赤白五色光耀，乘七寶船遊戲其中; Taisho Tripitaka T. 12, No. 376, p. 857)”. Additionally, since the five colors consist of one mixed color in addition to the four primary colors, Buddhist scriptures sometimes refer to the five colors simply as “mixed color”. For instance, in Volume One of Móhē Bōrě Bōluómì Jīng 《摩訶般若波羅蜜經》, it is described that “The garlands hanging around the flower platforms, mixed color flower canopies, the five colors are in abundance, covering the entire three thousand great thousand worlds with these canopies and garlands (是花台邊垂諸瓔珞,雜色花蓋五色繽紛，是諸花蓋瓔珞遍滿三千大千世界; Taisho Tripitaka T. 8, No. 223, p. 218)”. Additionally, in Volume Two of Guān Wúliàngshòu Fó Jīng Yìshū 《觀無量壽佛經義疏》, it is stated that “‘The bottom of the canal is made of mixed-color diamonds’, the mixed-color diamonds being gold with five colors and of the finest quality (‘渠下皆以雜色金剛以為底沙’，雜色金剛，金有五色又精剛者; Taisho Tripitaka T. 37, No. 1754, p. 293)”. Here, the mixed color is equivalent to the five colors in these two scriptures.

A review of the Buddhist literature reveals that the concept of “five-colored threads” generally follows the “four colors plus one” model. For example, in Volume Two of Sūxīdì Jiéluó Jīng 《蘇悉地羯羅經》, it is stated that “The five-colored threads are: blue, yellow, red, white, and black (五色線謂：青、黃、赤、白、黑; Taisho Tripitaka T. 18, No. 893a, p. 622)”. In Volume Four of Qī Fó Bā Púsà Suǒ Shuō Dà Tuóluóní Shén Zhòu Jīng《七佛八菩薩所說大陀羅尼神呪經》, it is mentioned that “Five-colored threads are needed: blue, yellow, red, white, and purple. Tie them into twenty-one knots, first on the feet, then the waist, then the hands, and finally the neck (須五色疊縷青黃赤白紫，結作三七二十一結，繫脚、次繫腰，復繫手、復繫項; Taisho Tripitaka T. 21, No. 1332, p. 558)”. Additionally, in Volume One Miào Jíxiáng Píngděng Mìmì Zuì Shàng Guānmén Dà Jiàowáng Jīng 《妙吉祥平等祕密最上觀門大教王經》, it says, “Empower the mandala with five-colored threads, and tie the mouth of the vase with five-colored silk: blue, yellow, red, green, and white (加持界壇五色線，及繫瓶口五色綵，青、黃、紅、綠、白; Taisho Tripitaka T. 20, No. 1192, p. 910)”. It is noteworthy that while there are various combinations for the five-colored threads in Buddhist texts, the combination of “blue, yellow, red, white, and black” is overwhelmingly predominant. This is undoubtedly influenced by the Chinese concept of “five colors”. The four fundamental colors of blue, yellow, red, and white in the Buddhist five colors correspond to the four basic colors in the Chinese concept of five colors. The fifth color in the Buddhist five colors does not have a fixed designation. However, in the context of the spread of Buddhism in China, influenced by Chinese culture, Buddhism often designates the fifth color as black to align with the traditional Chinese understanding of five colors. As a result, the combination of “blue, yellow, red, white, and black” has become representative of the Buddhist five colors, and the Buddhist concept of five colors has gradually merged with the Chinese concept of five colors.

4. Conclusions

The Buddhist practice of knotted thread originates from the Indian “sacred thread” worship. In Indian culture, the sacred thread symbolizes status and has magical functions such as warding off evil, preventing disasters, bestowing blessings, and providing protection. Early Buddhism opposed the caste system of the Brahmins and sought to distinguish itself from other non-Buddhist practices prevalent in Indian society. Therefore, Buddhism initially rejected the wearing and use of the sacred thread. However, after the Buddha’s parinirvana, as the Buddhist community expanded, some practices that early Buddhism opposed were gradually accepted. Among these was the knotted thread.

Through meticulous review of Buddhist scriptures concerning the practice of knotted thread, several conclusions can be drawn: (1) In Buddhism, knotted thread can be single-colored or multi-colored. The concept of the five-colored thread holds particular significance within Chinese culture. The Fo Guang Dictionary (Ci 1988) defines “five-colored thread” as “a thread made of five colors: blue, yellow, red, white and black. It is also called five-colored cord, five-colored silk and five-colored string” (p. 1084). However, our investigation suggests that this definition may be inaccurate. In Buddhist practice, the five-colored thread typically includes primary colors, such as blue, yellow, red, and white, with the fifth color varying, possibly including black, green, or purple, with black being the most common. (2) Both India and China have traditions of using knotted thread for protection against evil spirits. However, attributing the practice of wearing five-colored threads solely to Chinese cultural influence in esoteric Buddhist scriptures would be an oversimplification (Xia and Yan 2015). Conversely, it is also implausible that the practice of using knotted thread in Buddhism was entirely unaffected by Chinese culture. While India has a longstanding tradition of using knotted thread, esoteric Buddhist scriptures predominantly feature threads in blue, yellow, red, white, and black, suggesting an influence from traditional Chinese color concepts. (3) The transmission of the knotted thread from India to China and its subsequent assimilation into local Chinese customs underscores the complexity and diversity of cultural exchanges. Cultural interaction often involves mutual adaptation and innovation rather than a unidirectional transfer. Besides the “Knotted Thread”, esoteric Buddhist scriptures also incorporate various ritualistic practices such as divination, amulets, and astrology. While these practices may seem contradictory to early Buddhist precepts, scholars like Xiao Dengfu argue that they reflect influences from Chinese culture, particularly Daoist influences (Xiao 1993a, 1993b, 1994, 2005). Recent studies by Jeffrey Kotyk have traced the Indian origins of astrological practices in Buddhist scriptures (Kotyk 2017). Similarly, this exploration of the knotted thread underscores its Indian cultural roots while recognizing its adaptation under Chinese cultural influences, thereby illustrating the richness and complexity of cultural exchanges.