Buddhist Yŏnghŏm (Wonder) and Royal Power in Early Chosŏn Korea: The Political Use of Buddhism during the Reign of King Sejo

Round 1

Reviewer 1 Report

Comments and Suggestions for Authors

This paper examined the case of King Sejo, in the Joseon Dynasty which advocated Confucianism as its official political ideology, attempted to strengthen his royal authority by flaunting Buddhist wonder.

The purpose and intent of this paper is to examine the historical significance of Buddhism by revealing that King Sejo, who lacked legitimacy during his ascension to the throne, endowed the phenomena of Buddhist wonder with political significance.

It is said that there Buddhist auspicious events have occurred approximately 40 times during King Sejo’s reign, such as the appearance of the Buddha or the dividing of śarīra, which are very rare phenomena that would have been difficult to occur in other periods of the Joseon Dynasty, and are noteworthy.

There are several points that need to be supplemented to enhance the completeness of this paper, and the review comments on them are as follows.

First, it is said that Sejo implemented various policies to promote Buddhism, such as establishing various measures to protect monks and temples and rebuilding many temples, but the basic tone of the policy of suppressing Buddhism was maintained after Taejong. I would like to see a supplementary explanation of the characteristics and meaning of Sejo’s reign in the overall flow of the state policy in the early Joseon Dynasty.  

Second, it is said that the use of the Buddhist wonders, along with large-scale pardons and gifts, allowed King Sejo to portray himself as a monarch with great benevolence and authority, but if there were any cases of criticism or opposition from Confucian scholars at the time, please provide specific examples.  

Third, in addition to Wongaksa Temple, the Buddha’s appearance and the reconstruction of Sangwonsa Temple were covered with great importance. At that time, there were two Sangwon Temples related to Sejo: Odaesan Mountain in Gangwondo and Yangpyeong in Gyeonggido. Previous studies mainly identified Odaesan Mountain, but recently it is known as Yangpyeong. Correction techniques are needed. Please refer to Yang Hyewon’s 2022 paper.

Author Response

Comments 1: First, it is said that Sejo implemented various policies to promote Buddhism, such as establishing various measures to protect monks and temples and rebuilding many temples, but the basic tone of the policy of suppressing Buddhism was maintained after Taejong. I would like to see a supplementary explanation of the characteristics and meaning of Sejo’s reign in the overall flow of the state policy in the early Joseon Dynasty.

Response 1: In the course of national policy promoted by the repressive policy in the early Joseon Dynasty, King Sejo's policy of non-recession can be evaluated as a very unique example. Although it is possible to evaluate King Sejo as a person who went against the trend of the times, in reality, the keynote of the repressive policy implemented after King Taejong was maintained and this stance was further strengthened after the death of King Sejo. In understanding the reign of King Sejo, the fact that King Sejo is a devout believer and a monarch who attempted to conceive and realize the state's ruling system are factors that must be considered when evaluating the Buddhism policy of the King Sejo period. In evaluating this period, further discussion is needed on how King Sejo as a politician and King Sejo as a reverent can be positioned in the history of the Joseon Dynasty.

The text briefly mentioned this part as a footnote.

 

Comments 2: Second, it is said that the use of the Buddhist wonders, along with large-scale pardons and gifts, allowed King Sejo to portray himself as a monarch with great benevolence and authority, but if there were any cases of criticism or opposition from Confucian scholars at the time, please provide specific examples.

Response 2: After King Sejo took the throne, it was such a coercive situation that King Sejo himself admitted that the Confucian officials, could not finish what it wanted to say. In particular, when the Confucian official criticized Buddhism to Sejo, Sejo often got angry. In this situation, Confucian officials' criticism of Buddhism mainly arose from financial problems. For example, in the process of creating a Buddha statuette in Sangwonsa Temple in the 9th year of King Sejo (1463), there was opposition from Yejo's (禮曹), but Sejo suppressed and supported it. (Sejo sillok 31, Gyemi 癸未 of the 9th month of the 9th year of Sejo)

The text mentioned this part as a footnote.

 

 

Comments 3: Third, in addition to Wongaksa Temple, the Buddha’s appearance and the reconstruction of Sangwonsa Temple were covered with great importance. At that time, there were two Sangwon Temples related to Sejo: Odaesan Mountain in Gangwondo and Yangpyeong in Gyeonggido. Previous studies mainly identified Odaesan Mountain, but recently it is known as Yangpyeong. Correction techniques are needed. Please refer to Yang Hyewon’s 2022 paper.

Response 3: Referring to Yang Hyewon's 2022 paper, I deleted the contents related to Odaesan and revised it to Yangpyeong.

Reviewer 2 Report

Comments and Suggestions for Authors

King Sejo's Governance and Buddhist Wonders

Reader Report

 

General Remarks:

• When I reviewed other articles for this journal, the author provided Korean terms in McCune Reischauer Romanization. This article provides it in Revised Romanization. These are two different standards; I highly recommend the Journal pick one for its authors. For example Joseon (RR) is Chosŏn in (McR)

• The essay argues for the importance of Buddhism in King Sejo's rulership/kingship ideology in light of his political needs as an illegitimate usurper. The argument is an important one and is argued cogently. The English prose is clear and readable. The empirical research is sound. The paper also opens up potential for many new discussions for thinking about politics and religion in early Chosŏn.

• Formatting

  • Lots of formatting issues related to Romanization, translation, and usage of Hanja etc. This should be made consistent with a clear standard.

• Bibliography and citation. This is the most CRITICAL problem with this paper. Citations from Korean language or Chinese language sources are provided in translation. The correct way to do this is through romanization. Translated titles are impossible to find. Korean names shoudl be given in standard romanization followed by the author's preferred romanization. I will provide one example:

  • Jin Sungkyun 2007 should be (in revised romanization); translated titles should be in sentence case:

    • Jin Seonggyu 진성규 [Jin Sungkyun]. 2007. "Sejo ui Bulsa haengwi wa geu uimi" 世祖의 佛事行爲와 그 意味 [Sejo's Buddhist service and its meaning]. Paeksan hakbo 백산학보 78: pp. 165–193.

  • Or in McCune Reischauer:

    • Chin Sŏnggyu [Jin Sungkyun]. 2007. "Sejo ŭi Pulsa haengwi wa kŭ ŭimi" 世祖의 佛事行爲와 그 意味 [Sejo's Buddhist service and its meaning]. Paeksan hakpo 백산학보 78: pp. 165–193.

  • Please consult the Chicago Manual of Style; https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/home.html

  • If the author needs help with romanization and bibliography etc, they may consider: https://www.chosonhistorysociety.org/profiles

• Title

  • My suggestion is to make the title more illustrative:

    • "Buddhist Wonders and Royal Power in Early Joseon Korea: The Political Use of Buddhism in the Reign of King Sejo"

• Abstract / historiography

  • Author sets this paper up in light of the early Chosŏn suppression of Buddhism. Some more recent scholarship casts doubt on this narrative. For example, Gregory Evon and Juhn Ahn's books. That doesn't mean they are correct, but it may be worth noting. Since the author is publishing a paper that primarily engages with Korean language scholarship, it would be useful if the author connects the findings to current conversations in the English language. Besides Evon and Ahn, perhaps Vermeersch could also be mentioned in the footnotes. This is so that the reader can see where the paper adds to existing conversations.

• Keywords

  • I suggest the author select keywords that do not appear in search engines. Sejo is mentioned in title and the abstract. Sangwonsa and Wongaksa and Sarira should be included. Consider including McCune Reischauer or Revised Romanization alternatives for Chosŏn/Joseon.

  • The Buddhist wonders -> Is there an East Asia keyword instead. the word Buddhist wonders is in the abstract

• Introduction/ pg. 1

  • Goryeo -> Koryŏ in McR (change optional, depends on standards) if author/journal opts to switch the Romanization, it should be consistent. I will not highlight Romanization-related issues.

  • See comment above about suppression of Buddhism and English language historiography

  • Note: Cheng-Zhu ideology: perhaps give a one sentence synopsis of what it is for the non-specialist.

• pg. 2

  • societal fabric -> social fabric

  • "Sejo...epitomized this characteristic" -> "The relationship between kingship and Buddhism was the strongest during the reign of Sejo (r. 1455–1468), Joseon's seventh king."

  • "While.... was being implemented"-> "Although the state implemented...."

  • "He took various measures"--> 'Sejo took various measures'

  • "Counter-coup attempt"--> give years

  • General point: Any Korean or Korean history scholar knows Sejo's coup and counter coup, but the audience of this paper does not, since it is targeting a Religion journal. Consider adding a bit more information, perhaps just some dates.

  • "emphasize him"--> "treat him"

• pg 3

  • Simplify opening sentence--> "This article seeks to understand the relationship of Buddhist wonder to political issues during King Sejo's 14 year reign"

  • Add one more sentence to introduction that states which meanings and characteristics the article will uncover. This is conventional in English language social science writing.

  • Suggestion: in line with current scholarship on Buddhism in early Chosŏn in English, this article is showing in many ways how open-ended the relationship between the confucian state, kingship, and religion are in this early period. It's too easy to take the later ideological consensus and late Chosŏn picture of Buddhist-kingship relations and project it back in time. Here we have a very concrete example of the kingship using Buddhism for political ends.

    • A point Evon makes is that the conflict between Buddhism and Confucian sadaebu is also a conflict between Kingly authority and literati moral authority. I think Evon's point supports this article's thesis/story.

  • "the fourth king... strengthened"--> This sentence is a bit hard to read. Too much stuff before the main verb. Consider breaking up into several sentences

• pg. 4

  • Gyeonguk daejeon-> Translation in to English: The National Code (Gyeonguk daejeon)

• pg. 5

  • lines 178--203

    • VERY long paragraph, consider splitting:

    • 179, paragraph, As part of

    • 185, paragraph, In addition

  • Spelling, King Seojo-> King Sejo

  • Consider adding "Temple" to Haeinsa, Sangwonsa etc.

• pg. 6-9

  • Chart formatting is a bit awkward. Will the Journal help typeset or design the table?

• pg. 9

  • Keyword sarira = Author might want to give a one line explanation of what a sarira is for a non-expert reader

• pg. 10

  • "Perfect Enlightenment Scripture" -> Provide Hanja/ sanskrit or other relevant identifying features. Note later int he block quote, it is identified as Won'gak sudara... Be consistent.

  • Suggestion: Wonguksa, Heungboksa. Korean readers know these are temples, but it's not obvious to non-Korean readers. Can we say Won'gaksa Temple, or Won'gak Temple instead?

  • "Sangwonsa jungchanggi"- > Provide English translation as well. Suggested format:

    • "Record of the Restoration of Sangwon Temple" (Sangwonsa jungchanggi 上院寺重創記) ; see also below

    • note: English translation is not necessary in the footnotes.

  • Gwangeun hyeongssangi -> why is this in Italics and the above in quotes?

  • Sillok citations. Author provides "August" or 'April'-- these are Gregorian months. Author should not use January-December for East Asian lunar dates. Say "10th month, 10th year" instead.

• pg. 11

  • 500 seok-> what is the rough SDI unit equivalent of seok?

• Bibliography

  • I cannot tell which articles are originally in Korean and which in English. Note that if it is in Korean, the main author names and titles should be romanized from Korean, not translated. Same applies to journal titles. Author may consult articles in the Journal of Korean Studies for a model.

  •  

Comments on the Quality of English Language

• see above

Author Response

Comments 1: When I reviewed other articles for this journal, the author provided Korean terms in McCune Reischauer Romanization. This article provides it in Revised Romanization. These are two different standards; I highly recommend the Journal pick one for its authors. For example Joseon (RR) is Chosŏn in (McR) / Lots of formatting issues related to Romanization, translation, and usage of Hanja etc. This should be made consistent with a clear standard.

Response 1: Modified in a Romanization manner.

 

Comments 2: Bibliography and citation. This is the most CRITICAL problem with this paper. Citations from Korean language or Chinese language sources are provided in translation. The correct way to do this is through romanization. Translated titles are impossible to find. Korean names shoudl be given in standard romanization followed by the author's preferred romanization. I will provide one example:

Jin Sungkyun 2007 should be (in revised romanization); translated titles should be in sentence case: Jin Seonggyu 진성규 [Jin Sungkyun]. 2007. "Sejo ui Bulsa haengwi wa geu uimi" 世祖의 佛事行爲와 그 意味 [Sejo's Buddhist service and its meaning]. Paeksan hakbo 백산학보 78: pp. 165–193.

Or in McCune Reischauer:

Chin Sŏnggyu [Jin Sungkyun]. 2007. "Sejo ŭi Pulsa haengwi wa kŭ ŭimi" 世祖의 佛事行爲와 그 意味 [Sejo's Buddhist service and its meaning]. Paeksan hakpo 백산학보 78: pp. 165–193.

Response 2: Modified

2007. ex) Jin Seonggyu 전성규. 2007. “Sejo ui bulsa haengwi wa geu uimi.” 세조의 불사행위와 그 의미 [Sejo’s Buddhist service and its Meaning]. Baeksan hakbo 백산학보 78: 165-193.

 

Comments 3: Title

My suggestion is to make the title more illustrative: "Buddhist Wonders and Royal Power in Early Joseon Korea: The Political Use of Buddhism in the Reign of King Sejo"

Response 3: Modified

 

Comments 4: Keywords

I suggest the author select keywords that do not appear in search engines. Sejo is mentioned in title and the abstract. Sangwonsa and Wongaksa and Sarira should be included. Consider including

Response 4: Modified

 

Comments 5:

※ The Buddhist wonders -> Is there an East Asia keyword instead. the word Buddhist wonders is in the abstract ?

Response 5: Yeongheom(靈驗) is a Buddhist term that refers to a Amazing religious experience based on a system of faith, which translates to Buddhist Wonders.

Keywords: The Buddhist wonders(靈應)

 

Comments 6: pg. 1

Cheng-Zhu ideology: perhaps give a one sentence synopsis of what it is for the non-specialist.

Response 6: I wrote the relevant information in the footnote.

“The Cheng-Zhu learning is a branch of Neo-Confucianism that was born out of a sense of criticism about the formalized and uniformed Confucianism in response to Buddhism during the Song Dynasty. It is based on the ideas of the Neo-Confucian philosophers Cheng Yi 程頤(1033-1107), Cheng Hao 程顥(1032-1085), Zhu Xi 朱熹(1130-1200)”

 

Comments 7: pg. 2

societal fabric -> social fabric / "Sejo...epitomized this characteristic" -> "The relationship between kingship and Buddhism was the strongest during the reign of Sejo (r. 1455–1468), Joseon's seventh king." / "While.... was being implemented"-> "Although the state implemented...." / "He took various measures"--> 'Sejo took various measures' / "Counter-coup attempt"--> give years / emphasize him"--> "treat him"

Response 7: Modified

 

Comments 8: General point: Any Korean or Korean history scholar knows Sejo's coup and counter coup, but the audience of this paper does not, since it is targeting a Religion journal. Consider adding a bit more information, perhaps just some dates.

Response 8: The explanation of King Sejo's coup and counter-coup is briefly presented in footnotes.

“King Sejo was the 7th king of Joseon, killing the 6th King Danjong and usurping the throne by force. In this process, the Restoration's Sayuksin ((死六臣) incident, which attempted to kill King Sejo and restore King Danjong, occurred, but failed.”

 

Comments 9: pg 3

Simplify opening sentence--> "This article seeks to understand the relationship of Buddhist wonder to political issues during King Sejo's 14 year reign“

Response 9: Modified

 

Comments 10: pg 3

"the fourth king... strengthened"--> This sentence is a bit hard to read. Too much stuff before the main verb. Consider breaking up into several sentences

Response 10: Modified

 

Comments 11: pg. 4

Gyeonguk daejeon-> Translation in to English: The National Code (Gyeonguk daejeon)

Response 11: Modified

 

Comments 12: pg. 5

VERY long paragraph, consider splitting: 179, paragraph, As part of / 185, paragraph, In addition

Response 12: Modified

 

Comments 13: pg. 5

Spelling, King Seojo-> King Sejo / Consider adding "Temple" to Haeinsa, Sangwonsa etc.

Response 13: Modified

 

Comments 14: pg. 9

Keyword sarira = Author might want to give a one line explanation of what a sarira is for a non-expert reader

Response 14: I wrote the relevant information in the footnote.

”Śarīra is commonly used to refer to bead-shaped objects, such as pearls and crystals, which are known to be found on the cremated remains of Buddhist spiritual teachers. These objects are considered important artifacts by many sects of Buddhism because they are believed to embody the spiritual knowledge, teaching, enlightenment, or living essence of a spiritual teacher.“

 

Comments 15: pg. 10

"Perfect Enlightenment Scripture" -> Provide Hanja / sanskrit or other relevant identifying features. Note later int he block quote, it is identified as Won'gak sudara... Be consistent.

Response 15: Modified

 

Comments 16: Suggestion: Wonguksa, Heungboksa. Korean readers know these are temples, but it's not obvious to non-Korean readers. Can we say Won'gaksa Temple, or Won'gak Temple instead?

Response 16: It was modified to include 'temple' after the names of all temples. And although there is no established principle, Won'gaksa is regarded as a proper noun, and the name Won'gaksa Temple is often used rather than Won'gak Temple.

 

Comments 17: pg. 12

"Sangwonsa jungchanggi"- > Provide English translation as well. Suggested format: "Record of the Restoration of Sangwon Temple" (Sangwonsa jungchanggi 上院寺重創記) ; see also below

Response 17: Modified

 

Comments 18: pg. 12

Gwangeun hyeongssangi -> why is this in Italics and the above in quotes?

Response 18: The Gwangeun hyeongssangi was compiled as a separate book, but Sangwonsa jungchanggi was not written in italic because it was included in Sigujip 拭疣集 rather than a separate book.

 

Comments 19: Sillok citations. Author provides "August" or 'April'-- these are Gregorian months. Author should not use January-December for East Asian lunar dates. Say "10th month, 10th year" instead.

Response 19: Modified

 

Comments 20: 500 seok-> what is the rough SDI unit equivalent of seok?

Response 20: ‘Seok’(石) is a traditional East Asian measurement type and is the largest unit of grain counting. Since it varies from country to country or era, it is difficult to estimate how much it weighs in terms of international unit systems. However, based on the current standards, one seok would weigh about 144 kg, and 500 seok would weigh 7.2 ton.

 

Comments 21: I cannot tell which articles are originally in Korean and which in English. Note that if it is in Korean, the main author names and titles should be romanized from Korean, not translated. Same applies to journal titles. Author may consult articles in the Journal of Korean Studies for a model.

Response 21: Modified